Exploring Egypt is a great experience through Egypt Nile Cruises. But this does not mean that those wanting to go on sightseeing tours of Egypt by road have no option. Tourists can very easily avail Car Rental in Egypt. Driving along the Nile or Red Sea coast has its own charm. Offering you to choose cars with or without drivers is the superb Car Rental in Egypt. Moreover, English-speaking guide can also be hired along with Car Rental in Egypt. Feel free to negotiate for the best bargains while hiring a car in Egypt.
Below is a list of Companies offering Car Rental in Egypt: -
Hertz
195 Sharia 26th of July, Mohandiseen Cairo, Egypt
Thrifty
1 Al-Entesar, HeliopolisCairo, Egypt
J Car
33 Sharia Missaha, DoqqiCairo, Egypt
Avis
16 Mamal as-Sukkar, Garden CityCairo, Egypt
Budget Rent-A-Car
5 Makrizy, ZamalekCairo, Egypt
* Car Rental Service of all the above-mentioned Companies is also available at Cairo International Airport in Egypt
Friday, November 9, 2007
Monday, November 5, 2007
Egypt Airports
Cairo International Airport (CAI)
Location: The airport is situated 14 miles (22km) from Cairo.
Time: Local time is GMT +2 (GMT +3 between last Friday in April and last Friday in September).
Contacts: Tel: +20 (0)2 265 3308 or (0)2 268 4248.
Transfer between terminals: The two terminals are two miles (3km) apart and are linked by a free shuttle, which departs about every half an hour.
Transfer to the city: There are taxis outside the main arrivals hall; the journey to central Cairo takes around 45 minutes.
An Airport Shuttle bus is a convenient way to get from the airport to downtown Cairo and along the Pyramids Road in Giza.
Public buses and air-conditioned coaches also leave regularly from Terminal 1. Car rental: Car hire companies at the airport include Avis, Budget, Europcar and Hertz.
However, driving in Cairo is best avoided, otherwise visitors can hire a driver with their car for a small additional charge.
Facilities: Facilities include a restaurant and several cafeterias, banks and ATMs, bureau de change, pharmacies, an Internet café in Terminal 1, five-star lounges for business and first class passengers, smoking rooms (Terminal 1), tourist information desks and travel agencies. Duty-free is also available.
Facilities for disabled passengers are good, but those with special needs should contact their airline in advance.
Parking: Long and short-term parking is available.
Departure tax: None.
Website: http://www.cairo-airport.com/
Luxor Airport (LXR)
Location: The airport is situated four miles (6km) east of the city.
Time: Local time is GMT +2 (GMT +3 from last Friday in April to last Friday in September). Contacts: Tel: +20 (0)95 379 655.
Transfer to the city: The best way to the city is by taxi (journey time 15min), but there is also a regular bus service available, but it is generally very crowded.
Car rental: There are car rental agencies at the airport.
Facilities: Airport facilities include bureaux de change, restaurants, shops, a tourist information desk, post office and left luggage.
Wheelchairs are available for disabled passengers; airlines should be notified in advance. Departure tax: None.
Sharm El-Sheikh International Airport
an international airport located in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt. Opened on May 14, 1968, the airport was originally an Israeli Air Force base and also served the small settlement of Ofira.
On May 23rd 2007, the airport's second terminal was inaugurated with a capacity for 8 million passengers per year. The two-level 43,000 m2 terminal features 40 check-in counters and is designed to cater to a large number of international and chartered flights. It has one domestic and six international gates, all of which exit to remote stands. The terminal comprises three building components: two circular-shaped halls fused together by a wedge-shaped intermediate space dubbed 'the boat'. 'The boat' serves as a passenger transit hub housing passport control, duty free, and VIP areas as well as cafes/restaurants. The halls, in stark textural contrast to the solid mass of 'the boat', feature airy, billowing tent-like roofs inspired by the indigenous Beduin culture.
In 2006, the airport served 5,059,456 passengers. It is the second busiest airport in Egypt after Cairo International Airport.
Marsa Alam International Airport
is a growing airport in Marsa Alam, Egypt. In response to the increasing needs of European travelers to this southern Red Sea destination, along with many other airports in the Red Sea such as Sharm el-Sheikh International Airport in Sharm el-Sheikh, Marsa Alam is recently home to this new international airport.
The Marsa Alam International Airport is privately owned and operated by EMAK Marsa Alam for Management & Operation Airports SAE, a subsidiary of the M.A. Al-Kharafi Group of Kuwait. Marsa Alam International Airport is managed by Aéroports de Paris.
According to General Manager, Jacquy Pain, "the airport is now receiving 11 flights per week from Italy and 2 flights per week from Germany".[citation needed] Currently, the airport can accommodate 600 passengers per hour. In the future, the airport will able to process up to 2500 passengers per hour.[citation needed] In 2006, the airport served 500,155 passengers.
Location: The airport is situated 14 miles (22km) from Cairo.
Time: Local time is GMT +2 (GMT +3 between last Friday in April and last Friday in September).
Contacts: Tel: +20 (0)2 265 3308 or (0)2 268 4248.
Transfer between terminals: The two terminals are two miles (3km) apart and are linked by a free shuttle, which departs about every half an hour.
Transfer to the city: There are taxis outside the main arrivals hall; the journey to central Cairo takes around 45 minutes.
An Airport Shuttle bus is a convenient way to get from the airport to downtown Cairo and along the Pyramids Road in Giza.
Public buses and air-conditioned coaches also leave regularly from Terminal 1. Car rental: Car hire companies at the airport include Avis, Budget, Europcar and Hertz.
However, driving in Cairo is best avoided, otherwise visitors can hire a driver with their car for a small additional charge.
Facilities: Facilities include a restaurant and several cafeterias, banks and ATMs, bureau de change, pharmacies, an Internet café in Terminal 1, five-star lounges for business and first class passengers, smoking rooms (Terminal 1), tourist information desks and travel agencies. Duty-free is also available.
Facilities for disabled passengers are good, but those with special needs should contact their airline in advance.
Parking: Long and short-term parking is available.
Departure tax: None.
Website: http://www.cairo-airport.com/
Luxor Airport (LXR)
Location: The airport is situated four miles (6km) east of the city.
Time: Local time is GMT +2 (GMT +3 from last Friday in April to last Friday in September). Contacts: Tel: +20 (0)95 379 655.
Transfer to the city: The best way to the city is by taxi (journey time 15min), but there is also a regular bus service available, but it is generally very crowded.
Car rental: There are car rental agencies at the airport.
Facilities: Airport facilities include bureaux de change, restaurants, shops, a tourist information desk, post office and left luggage.
Wheelchairs are available for disabled passengers; airlines should be notified in advance. Departure tax: None.
Sharm El-Sheikh International Airport
an international airport located in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt. Opened on May 14, 1968, the airport was originally an Israeli Air Force base and also served the small settlement of Ofira.
On May 23rd 2007, the airport's second terminal was inaugurated with a capacity for 8 million passengers per year. The two-level 43,000 m2 terminal features 40 check-in counters and is designed to cater to a large number of international and chartered flights. It has one domestic and six international gates, all of which exit to remote stands. The terminal comprises three building components: two circular-shaped halls fused together by a wedge-shaped intermediate space dubbed 'the boat'. 'The boat' serves as a passenger transit hub housing passport control, duty free, and VIP areas as well as cafes/restaurants. The halls, in stark textural contrast to the solid mass of 'the boat', feature airy, billowing tent-like roofs inspired by the indigenous Beduin culture.
In 2006, the airport served 5,059,456 passengers. It is the second busiest airport in Egypt after Cairo International Airport.
Marsa Alam International Airport
is a growing airport in Marsa Alam, Egypt. In response to the increasing needs of European travelers to this southern Red Sea destination, along with many other airports in the Red Sea such as Sharm el-Sheikh International Airport in Sharm el-Sheikh, Marsa Alam is recently home to this new international airport.
The Marsa Alam International Airport is privately owned and operated by EMAK Marsa Alam for Management & Operation Airports SAE, a subsidiary of the M.A. Al-Kharafi Group of Kuwait. Marsa Alam International Airport is managed by Aéroports de Paris.
According to General Manager, Jacquy Pain, "the airport is now receiving 11 flights per week from Italy and 2 flights per week from Germany".[citation needed] Currently, the airport can accommodate 600 passengers per hour. In the future, the airport will able to process up to 2500 passengers per hour.[citation needed] In 2006, the airport served 500,155 passengers.
Egypt Contacts
Egyptian Tourist Authority, Cairo: +20 (0)2 684 1970 or www.egypt.travel
Egyptian Embassy, Washington DC, United States: +1 202 895 5400.
Egyptian Embassy, London, United Kingdom: +44 (0)20 7499 3304.
Egyptian Embassy, Ottawa, Canada: +1 613 234 4931.
Egyptian Embassy, Canberra, Australia (also responsible for New Zealand): +61 (0)2 6273 4437.
Egyptian Embassy, Pretoria, South Africa: +27 (0)12 343 1590.
Egyptian Embassy, Dublin, Ireland: +353 (0)1 660 6566.
United States Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 797 3300.
British Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 794 0852.
Canadian Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 791 8700.
Australian Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 575 0444.
South African Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 359 4365.
Irish Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 735 8264.
New Zealand Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 461 9178.
Emergencies: 122 (Police); 123 (Ambulance),
Egyptian Embassy, Washington DC, United States: +1 202 895 5400.
Egyptian Embassy, London, United Kingdom: +44 (0)20 7499 3304.
Egyptian Embassy, Ottawa, Canada: +1 613 234 4931.
Egyptian Embassy, Canberra, Australia (also responsible for New Zealand): +61 (0)2 6273 4437.
Egyptian Embassy, Pretoria, South Africa: +27 (0)12 343 1590.
Egyptian Embassy, Dublin, Ireland: +353 (0)1 660 6566.
United States Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 797 3300.
British Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 794 0852.
Canadian Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 791 8700.
Australian Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 575 0444.
South African Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 359 4365.
Irish Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 735 8264.
New Zealand Embassy, Cairo: +20 (0)2 461 9178.
Emergencies: 122 (Police); 123 (Ambulance),
Egypt Passport & Visa Requirements
Entry requirements for Americans:
US citizens must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for UK nationals:
UK citizens must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for Canadians:
Canadians must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for Australians:
Australians must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for South Africans:
South African nationals require a valid passport, and a visa for travel to Egypt. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for New Zealanders:
New Zealand citizens must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for Irish nationals:
Irish nationals must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival. Passport/Visa Note: Passports must be valid for at least two months beyond the period of visit. Visa requirements change at short notice.
Other Tips
Tourist visas for Egypt can often be obtained upon arrival in Egypt, for citizens of most countries (It is highly recommended to confirm visa particulars with the appropriate consulate, however).
However, citizens of the following countries are required to be in possession of a pre-arrival visa: Afghanistan, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chechnya, Croatia, Georgia, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz, Lebanon, Macau, Macedonia, Malaysia, Moldavia, Montenegro, Morocco, Pakistan, Palestine, The Philippines, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Sri-Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan and all African countries.
Egyptian consulates do not issue student visas; application for a student visa (if required) is made after entering Egypt with a tourist or entry visa.
Citizens of the following countries do not require a visa:
a) nationals of Kuwait, who are allocated a six months' residence permit upon arrival;
b) Palestinians holding an Egyptian residence card, provided the stay outside Egypt does not exceed six months;
c) nationals of Bahrain, Djibouti, Guinea, Jordan (only with a passport with at least five years' validity), Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen for stays of up to three months;
d) nationals of Malaysia for stays of up to 15 days;
e) those continuing their journey to a third country within 24 hours, provided holding confirmed tickets.
f) Cruise ship passengers entering Egypt at any port for a maximum stay of 3 days.For current visa information, please contact the nearest consulate.
What documents will be required?
Passport (passport must have at least 6 months validity remaining)
Completed application form1 recent passport-type photograph (2in. X 2in.)
Copy of airline tickets or itinerary
Please contact the nearest Egyptian Consulate for furtherinformation on what documentation may be required for you to enter Egypt.
Time required to issue visa:
Although tourist visas are issued on-arrival in Egypt in many cases, Egyptian authorities strongly recommend inquiry at the local Consulate for specific information.
What is the cost of a visa?
aprox. US$15-$91, depending on nationality.
Business visas are cheaper for Canadian nationals. Nationals of the USA pay a standard rate of £12 for visas of any type. South African nationals obtain visas free of charge.
Payment of fees is in cash or by postal order only; cheques will not be accepted. Processing fees for other nationals vary considerably; check with the appropriate Consulate (or Consular section of Embassy) for costs of visas. Visa fees are per passport, not per person.
How long is the visa valid for?
Tourist visas: 30-180 daysStudent visas: Varies Other information: Extensions to a tourist visa are possible; enquire at your local consulate for details.
Visitors from all countries except Canada, the EU and the USA must register with the police within a week of arrival in Egypt, although this service is usually undertaken by the hotel.
Note: Passport and visa requirements are liable to change at short notice. Travellers are advised to check their entry requirements with their embassy or consulate.
US citizens must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for UK nationals:
UK citizens must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for Canadians:
Canadians must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for Australians:
Australians must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for South Africans:
South African nationals require a valid passport, and a visa for travel to Egypt. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for New Zealanders:
New Zealand citizens must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival.
Entry requirements for Irish nationals:
Irish nationals must have a valid passport, and a visa is required. A 30-day visa can be obtained on arrival for US$15 or the equivalent, provided the purpose of travel is for tourism. For travellers entering Egypt via South Sinai and remaining in the South Sinai resort area, a free 14-day visa can be obtained on arrival. Passport/Visa Note: Passports must be valid for at least two months beyond the period of visit. Visa requirements change at short notice.
Other Tips
Tourist visas for Egypt can often be obtained upon arrival in Egypt, for citizens of most countries (It is highly recommended to confirm visa particulars with the appropriate consulate, however).
However, citizens of the following countries are required to be in possession of a pre-arrival visa: Afghanistan, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chechnya, Croatia, Georgia, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz, Lebanon, Macau, Macedonia, Malaysia, Moldavia, Montenegro, Morocco, Pakistan, Palestine, The Philippines, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Sri-Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan and all African countries.
Egyptian consulates do not issue student visas; application for a student visa (if required) is made after entering Egypt with a tourist or entry visa.
Citizens of the following countries do not require a visa:
a) nationals of Kuwait, who are allocated a six months' residence permit upon arrival;
b) Palestinians holding an Egyptian residence card, provided the stay outside Egypt does not exceed six months;
c) nationals of Bahrain, Djibouti, Guinea, Jordan (only with a passport with at least five years' validity), Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen for stays of up to three months;
d) nationals of Malaysia for stays of up to 15 days;
e) those continuing their journey to a third country within 24 hours, provided holding confirmed tickets.
f) Cruise ship passengers entering Egypt at any port for a maximum stay of 3 days.For current visa information, please contact the nearest consulate.
What documents will be required?
Passport (passport must have at least 6 months validity remaining)
Completed application form1 recent passport-type photograph (2in. X 2in.)
Copy of airline tickets or itinerary
Please contact the nearest Egyptian Consulate for furtherinformation on what documentation may be required for you to enter Egypt.
Time required to issue visa:
Although tourist visas are issued on-arrival in Egypt in many cases, Egyptian authorities strongly recommend inquiry at the local Consulate for specific information.
What is the cost of a visa?
aprox. US$15-$91, depending on nationality.
Business visas are cheaper for Canadian nationals. Nationals of the USA pay a standard rate of £12 for visas of any type. South African nationals obtain visas free of charge.
Payment of fees is in cash or by postal order only; cheques will not be accepted. Processing fees for other nationals vary considerably; check with the appropriate Consulate (or Consular section of Embassy) for costs of visas. Visa fees are per passport, not per person.
How long is the visa valid for?
Tourist visas: 30-180 daysStudent visas: Varies Other information: Extensions to a tourist visa are possible; enquire at your local consulate for details.
Visitors from all countries except Canada, the EU and the USA must register with the police within a week of arrival in Egypt, although this service is usually undertaken by the hotel.
Note: Passport and visa requirements are liable to change at short notice. Travellers are advised to check their entry requirements with their embassy or consulate.
Sites of Egyptian Missions
Egyptian Consulate General in San Francisco
Egyptian Embassy in Washington
Egyptian Consulate General in Riyadh
Egyptian Consulate General in Jeddah
Egyptian Consulate General in Marsellia
Egyptian Consulate General in New York
Egyptian Embassy in Abu Dhabi
Egyptian Embassy in Riyadh
Egyptian Consulate General in London
Egyptian Embassy in Ottawa
Egyptian Consulate General in Montreal
Egyptian Consulate in Paris
Egyptian Consulate in Chicago
Egyptian Consulate in Dubai
Egyptian Consulate General in Melbourne
Egyptian Embassy in Canberra
Egyptian Consulate General in Sydney
Egyptian Embassy in New Delhi
Egyptian Embassy in Jakarta
Egyptian Embassy in Paris
Egyptian Consulate General in Benghazi
Egyptian Embassy in Singapore
Egyptian Embassy in Rome
Egyptian Embassy in Athens
Egyptian Embassy in Amman
Egyptian Embassy in Tripoli
Egyptian Embassy in Rabat
Egyptian Embassy in Tunis
Egyptian Embassy in Budapest
Egyptian Embassy in Brasilia
Egyptian Embassy in Kiev
Egyptian Consulate General in Hamburg
Egyptian Embassy in Doha
Egyptian Embassy in Bucharest
Egyptian Embassy in Hague
Egyptian Embassy in Muscat
Egyptian Consulate General in Houston
Egyptian Embassy in London
Egyptian Embassy in Prague
Egyptian Embassy in Nairobi
Egyptian Embassy in Valletta
Egyptian Embassy in Bern
Egyptian Embassy in Ankara
Egyptian Consulate General in Frankfurt
Egyptian Embassy in Dublin
Egyptian Embassy in Seoul
Egyptian Embassy in Caracas
Egyptian Embassy in Washington
Egyptian Consulate General in Riyadh
Egyptian Consulate General in Jeddah
Egyptian Consulate General in Marsellia
Egyptian Consulate General in New York
Egyptian Embassy in Abu Dhabi
Egyptian Embassy in Riyadh
Egyptian Consulate General in London
Egyptian Embassy in Ottawa
Egyptian Consulate General in Montreal
Egyptian Consulate in Paris
Egyptian Consulate in Chicago
Egyptian Consulate in Dubai
Egyptian Consulate General in Melbourne
Egyptian Embassy in Canberra
Egyptian Consulate General in Sydney
Egyptian Embassy in New Delhi
Egyptian Embassy in Jakarta
Egyptian Embassy in Paris
Egyptian Consulate General in Benghazi
Egyptian Embassy in Singapore
Egyptian Embassy in Rome
Egyptian Embassy in Athens
Egyptian Embassy in Amman
Egyptian Embassy in Tripoli
Egyptian Embassy in Rabat
Egyptian Embassy in Tunis
Egyptian Embassy in Budapest
Egyptian Embassy in Brasilia
Egyptian Embassy in Kiev
Egyptian Consulate General in Hamburg
Egyptian Embassy in Doha
Egyptian Embassy in Bucharest
Egyptian Embassy in Hague
Egyptian Embassy in Muscat
Egyptian Consulate General in Houston
Egyptian Embassy in London
Egyptian Embassy in Prague
Egyptian Embassy in Nairobi
Egyptian Embassy in Valletta
Egyptian Embassy in Bern
Egyptian Embassy in Ankara
Egyptian Consulate General in Frankfurt
Egyptian Embassy in Dublin
Egyptian Embassy in Seoul
Egyptian Embassy in Caracas
Religion & Religious Services
Religion & Religious Services
Islam is the official religion of Egypt, but there is a large Coptic community and other Christian sects are represented in the country. There is also a small Jewish community. Islam is part of the Judaeo-Christian family of religions and was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in what is now Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
Islam has five major principles, called pillars, which form the foundation of the religion. The first is the belief that there is only one God and that the Prophet Muhammad is the messenger of God. The second is prayer, which is performed five times a day and can be conducted in any place as long as it is done facing Mecca. Almsgiving is the third principle and by religious law Muslims must donate a percentage of their savings to the poor.
The fourth pillar is the obligation to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. The fifth pillar is pilgrimage to Mecca, hajj, which all Muslims hope to perform at least once. The pilgrimage is performed during the month of Zhu’l-Higga, 70 days after the end of the Ramadan fast.
Coptic Orthodox
The Copts, a large minority in Egypt, are a Christian sect which separated from the Byzantine and Latin church in the 5th century over a disagreement in religious doctrine. Copts founded the world’s first monasteries, and the continuing monastic tradition is an important part of the Coptic faith.
Religious Observances
Foreigners are free to attend any Coptic service. Non-Muslims can enter mosques listed as antiquities. Muslims may enter any mosque at any time free of charge. Listed below is a small selection of Christian services. Hours should be checked in the newspapers
.
Catholic Churches
Church of the Annunciation, 36 Muhammad Sabri Abu Alam, near Midan Talaat Harb. Tel: 393-8429. Armenian Rite. Holy Liturgy Sunday 8:15 a.m. (in Coptic with Arabic readings); 9:30 a.m., 10:30 a.m. and 6:30 p.m.
Our Lady of Peace (Melkite, Greek Catholic), 4 Midan el Sheikh Yusef, 96 Qasr el Aini. Byzantine Rite in Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday at 8:30 a.m. , 10:30 a.m., and 6 p.m.
Holy Family Catholic Church, 55 Road 15, Maadi. Latin Rite. Daily Mass in French 8 a.m. Friday. Family Mass 10 a.m. Saturday in English. Saturday Mass 6 p.m. in German, 7 p.m. in French. Sunday Mass 9:30 a.m. in French 10:30 a.m. and 6 p.m. in English.
St. Joseph’s Church (Italian and Egyptian Franciscan Friars), 2 Bank Misr at corner of Muhammad Farid. Tel: 393-6677. Latin Rite. Holy Mass Sunday 7:30 a.m. in French; 8:30 a.m. in Arabic; 10 a.m. in Italian; 12:30 p.m. in French; 5:30 p.m. in English; 6:30 p.m. in French. Weekdays 7:30 a.m. and 6:30 p.m. in French.
St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Church, 4 Ahmed Sabri, Zamalek. Tel: 340-8902, 340-9348. Latin Rite. Holy Mass Sunday 8:30 a.m. in Arabic; 11 a.m. in English; 6 p.m. in French. Weekdays 6 p.m. in French. Saturday 6 p.m. in Italian (sometimes Spanish).
Orthodox Churches
Armenian Orthodox, Cathedral of St. Gregory the Illuminator, 179 Ramses near Coptic Hospital. Armenian Rite in Armenian. Holy Liturgy Sunday 9-11 a.m.
Abu Serga Church, Old Cairo. Coptic Rite in Coptic and Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday 8 a.m.-12 p.m.
St. Mark’s Cathedral, 222 Ramses, Abbassiyah. Coptic Rite in Coptic and Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday 6-8 a.m.
Church of the Virgin Mary, 6 Muhammad Marashli, Zamalek. Tel: 340-5153. Coptic Rite in Coptic and Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday 7:30-9:30 a.m. and 9:30-11 a.m.
Protestant Churches
All Saints’ Cathedral, 5 Michel Lutfallah, Zamalek, behind the Marriott Hotel Episcopal/Anglican. Services in English: Sunday 8 a.m.
Christian Science Society, 3 Midan Mustafa Kamil. Service and Sunday School, Sunday 7:30 p.m. Testimony Meeting Wednesday 7:30 p.m. Reading Room with Bible references and Christian Science literature open Wednesday and Sunday 6-7:0 p.m. and Friday 11 a.m.-2 p.m.
Church of God, 15 Emad el Din, Apt. 45. Sunday service 10:30 a.m.
Church of Christ, 14A Road 206, Apt. 4, Digla.
Church of God Cairo Christian Fellowship, St. Andrew’s Church, corner of Gala and 26 July. Sunday services 6 p.m. in English.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon). 44 Road 20, Maadi. Weekly sacrament service Friday at 9:30 a.m.
Maadi Community Church (The Church of St. John the Baptist). Corner of Port Said and Road 17, Maadi. Services in English Friday 8:30 a.m. and 11 a.m., with nursery; Sunday 7 p.m., no nursery.
Saint Andrew’s United Church 38, 26 July and Ramses. Service in English Sunday 9:30 a.m.
Seventh Day Adventist Church, 16 Kubba, Roxi Heliopolis. Tel: 258-0292. 258-0785.
Islam is the official religion of Egypt, but there is a large Coptic community and other Christian sects are represented in the country. There is also a small Jewish community. Islam is part of the Judaeo-Christian family of religions and was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in what is now Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
Islam has five major principles, called pillars, which form the foundation of the religion. The first is the belief that there is only one God and that the Prophet Muhammad is the messenger of God. The second is prayer, which is performed five times a day and can be conducted in any place as long as it is done facing Mecca. Almsgiving is the third principle and by religious law Muslims must donate a percentage of their savings to the poor.
The fourth pillar is the obligation to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. The fifth pillar is pilgrimage to Mecca, hajj, which all Muslims hope to perform at least once. The pilgrimage is performed during the month of Zhu’l-Higga, 70 days after the end of the Ramadan fast.
Coptic Orthodox
The Copts, a large minority in Egypt, are a Christian sect which separated from the Byzantine and Latin church in the 5th century over a disagreement in religious doctrine. Copts founded the world’s first monasteries, and the continuing monastic tradition is an important part of the Coptic faith.
Religious Observances
Foreigners are free to attend any Coptic service. Non-Muslims can enter mosques listed as antiquities. Muslims may enter any mosque at any time free of charge. Listed below is a small selection of Christian services. Hours should be checked in the newspapers
.
Catholic Churches
Church of the Annunciation, 36 Muhammad Sabri Abu Alam, near Midan Talaat Harb. Tel: 393-8429. Armenian Rite. Holy Liturgy Sunday 8:15 a.m. (in Coptic with Arabic readings); 9:30 a.m., 10:30 a.m. and 6:30 p.m.
Our Lady of Peace (Melkite, Greek Catholic), 4 Midan el Sheikh Yusef, 96 Qasr el Aini. Byzantine Rite in Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday at 8:30 a.m. , 10:30 a.m., and 6 p.m.
Holy Family Catholic Church, 55 Road 15, Maadi. Latin Rite. Daily Mass in French 8 a.m. Friday. Family Mass 10 a.m. Saturday in English. Saturday Mass 6 p.m. in German, 7 p.m. in French. Sunday Mass 9:30 a.m. in French 10:30 a.m. and 6 p.m. in English.
St. Joseph’s Church (Italian and Egyptian Franciscan Friars), 2 Bank Misr at corner of Muhammad Farid. Tel: 393-6677. Latin Rite. Holy Mass Sunday 7:30 a.m. in French; 8:30 a.m. in Arabic; 10 a.m. in Italian; 12:30 p.m. in French; 5:30 p.m. in English; 6:30 p.m. in French. Weekdays 7:30 a.m. and 6:30 p.m. in French.
St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Church, 4 Ahmed Sabri, Zamalek. Tel: 340-8902, 340-9348. Latin Rite. Holy Mass Sunday 8:30 a.m. in Arabic; 11 a.m. in English; 6 p.m. in French. Weekdays 6 p.m. in French. Saturday 6 p.m. in Italian (sometimes Spanish).
Orthodox Churches
Armenian Orthodox, Cathedral of St. Gregory the Illuminator, 179 Ramses near Coptic Hospital. Armenian Rite in Armenian. Holy Liturgy Sunday 9-11 a.m.
Abu Serga Church, Old Cairo. Coptic Rite in Coptic and Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday 8 a.m.-12 p.m.
St. Mark’s Cathedral, 222 Ramses, Abbassiyah. Coptic Rite in Coptic and Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday 6-8 a.m.
Church of the Virgin Mary, 6 Muhammad Marashli, Zamalek. Tel: 340-5153. Coptic Rite in Coptic and Arabic. Holy Liturgy Sunday 7:30-9:30 a.m. and 9:30-11 a.m.
Protestant Churches
All Saints’ Cathedral, 5 Michel Lutfallah, Zamalek, behind the Marriott Hotel Episcopal/Anglican. Services in English: Sunday 8 a.m.
Christian Science Society, 3 Midan Mustafa Kamil. Service and Sunday School, Sunday 7:30 p.m. Testimony Meeting Wednesday 7:30 p.m. Reading Room with Bible references and Christian Science literature open Wednesday and Sunday 6-7:0 p.m. and Friday 11 a.m.-2 p.m.
Church of God, 15 Emad el Din, Apt. 45. Sunday service 10:30 a.m.
Church of Christ, 14A Road 206, Apt. 4, Digla.
Church of God Cairo Christian Fellowship, St. Andrew’s Church, corner of Gala and 26 July. Sunday services 6 p.m. in English.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon). 44 Road 20, Maadi. Weekly sacrament service Friday at 9:30 a.m.
Maadi Community Church (The Church of St. John the Baptist). Corner of Port Said and Road 17, Maadi. Services in English Friday 8:30 a.m. and 11 a.m., with nursery; Sunday 7 p.m., no nursery.
Saint Andrew’s United Church 38, 26 July and Ramses. Service in English Sunday 9:30 a.m.
Seventh Day Adventist Church, 16 Kubba, Roxi Heliopolis. Tel: 258-0292. 258-0785.
On Arrival
On Arrival
A notice stamped in passports on entry into Egypt says “registration within 7 days” but arrivals in Cairo should in fact be registered within 48 hours, either at the nearest police station or at the Mugama’a. Visitors need re-registration at each new city visited for for the sake of the tourists' safty. Hotels perform this service routinely, but visitors staying in private houses, must make other arrangements to be registered. Their hosts may be held responsible for failure to do so.
Customs
The visitor is permitted to enter the country with 250 grams of tobacco, or 50 cigars, one liter of alcohol and personal affects. Animals must have a veterinary certificate attesting to their good health and a valid rabies certificate.
Cairo International Airport is one of the few airports that has a duty free shop upon arrival and departure.
Persons traveling with expensive electronic equipment such as cameras, video cameras, or computers may be required to list these items in their passports to ensure that they will be exported upon departure.
Porter Service
Most international airports in Egypt are equipped with baggage trolleys available free of charge. There are also porters with larger trolleys to service individuals and groups.
Extension of Stay
Visas may be renewed at the Mugama’a. They are valid for 15 days after the expiration date, but if not renewed a letter of apology from your embassy must be presented to the Mugama’a or you will have to pay a small fine. You may extend your stay for over one month one week before the end of your visit, if required.
On Departure
Traveler are free to buy and export Egyptian goods. There are restrictions on certain items that are not permitted to leave the country. Under no circumstances are antiquities, either ancient Egyptian or Islamic, permitted to be exported. Nor are precious jewels, carpets, paintings or other works older than 100 years.
A notice stamped in passports on entry into Egypt says “registration within 7 days” but arrivals in Cairo should in fact be registered within 48 hours, either at the nearest police station or at the Mugama’a. Visitors need re-registration at each new city visited for for the sake of the tourists' safty. Hotels perform this service routinely, but visitors staying in private houses, must make other arrangements to be registered. Their hosts may be held responsible for failure to do so.
Customs
The visitor is permitted to enter the country with 250 grams of tobacco, or 50 cigars, one liter of alcohol and personal affects. Animals must have a veterinary certificate attesting to their good health and a valid rabies certificate.
Cairo International Airport is one of the few airports that has a duty free shop upon arrival and departure.
Persons traveling with expensive electronic equipment such as cameras, video cameras, or computers may be required to list these items in their passports to ensure that they will be exported upon departure.
Porter Service
Most international airports in Egypt are equipped with baggage trolleys available free of charge. There are also porters with larger trolleys to service individuals and groups.
Extension of Stay
Visas may be renewed at the Mugama’a. They are valid for 15 days after the expiration date, but if not renewed a letter of apology from your embassy must be presented to the Mugama’a or you will have to pay a small fine. You may extend your stay for over one month one week before the end of your visit, if required.
On Departure
Traveler are free to buy and export Egyptian goods. There are restrictions on certain items that are not permitted to leave the country. Under no circumstances are antiquities, either ancient Egyptian or Islamic, permitted to be exported. Nor are precious jewels, carpets, paintings or other works older than 100 years.
Medical Emergencies in Egypt
Medical Emergencies in Egypt
Travelers are always worried about medical emergencies they might face in a foreign country. Such worry is always exaggerated when the destination is to a non-Western country. These are usually exaggerated by a false image some people have in their mind about Egypt.
Apart from the historical background of medicine during the ancient and middle ages, medical practice in Egypt has always enjoyed a good reputation in the modern era. Numerous physicians graduating from Egyptian faculties of medicine have a high standard of knowledge worldwide. Students from all over the Arab countries and Africa come to learn medicine, on both under and postgraduate levels. One of the best examples of Egyptian physicians is Sir Magdy Yacoub, the famous cardiac surgeon who graduated from Cairo University. Sir Magdy is currently practicing in UK, and was the first non-British to be knighted by the Queen of England.
The major worry of a visitor is his need for hospitalization in case of an accident or emergency. Modern hospitals are abundant all over the country, both in governmental and private sectors. Governmental hospitals in general, and university hospitals in particular, enjoy a high standard of modern equipment and efficient staff members. On the other hand, numerous private practices are not inferior, with some of them quite near to Western standards. These are also supported by the vast clinical and academic experience of university staff members, who work there as part-timers. In deserted places were medical facilities might be lagging; a major medical emergency is supported by the government. Frequently victims are transported from the scene of a major accident by helicopter to highly specialized centers in Cairo.
Hospitalization in most general hospitals, particularly in emergencies, are free of charge. However, a visitor is always advised to seek a private one, which are still strictly supervised by the health authorities. Hospital charges vary according to different standards, but in general the cost is much less than one would expect at home. It is illegal for a private hospital to reject or transfer any emergency case for financial reasons.
Once a patient is admitted to a private hospital in Egypt, a professor or consultant is immediately assigned to handle the case. The physician is fully responsible for his patient throughout the hospital stay, and is also responsible for coordination with any other colleague of different specialty, if needed.
The choice of the hospital and the consultant in charge might be confusing to a visitor. It is advised to leave this choice to the hotel physician. Most hotels have a resident junior doctor, or at least quick access to several consultants, who can be reached any time through mobile (cellular) phones. Also, embassies usually have contracts with physicians. Contacting the embassy is advised, as its personnel might also review the hospital charges.
In less severe conditions, when a guest needs medical attention beyond the capacity of the hotel physician, he would be directed to private clinics or polyclinics. Almost all physicians run private practices off office hours. Sometimes an appointment is required beforehand, but usually the physician would be very considerate. Consultation fees are variable, with the most expensive being for university staff members. A professor would charge between 100-150 L.E. (1 $US = 3.4 L.E. average) in Cairo. Consultants and specialists (ministry of health physicians) charge less, and prices are less in other cities. Another source to seek consultation are hospitals. A visitor is advised to avoid public ones, and head for the private.
Another worry for a visitor would be his medication, whether regular or incidental ones. Since most international pharmaceutical companies have offices in Egypt practically no drug is unavailable. However a visitor is always advised to carry on him any medicine he regularly uses. Owing to the variability of trade names between different countries, one should not expect his medicine to be labeled the same as he uses it back home. A record of the generic name of the drug is sometimes required. Since most commonly needed medication (as heart medicine and Insulin) have the same trade name worldwide, the problem is rarely encountered. However, some anti-hypertensives might have different names. A qualified pharmacist is always available in his pharmacy (drug store) for help, with no extra fees for this service. All drugs have fixed prices by the government. One only pays what is labeled on the box.
There are no custom restrictions for medication. Moreover, on the occasion of unexpected consumption or loss of the drug, a visitor can enjoy one of the pitfalls of the system. Drugs are available in pharmacies without the strict need of a prescription, except in hypnotics and narcotics. Pharmacies are abundant everywhere. They are easily spotted by the sign of a red crescent, sometimes with a red cross inside.
Visitors are advised to avoid consumption of certain types of food. Though tap water in Egypt is drinkable, foreigners are advised to use bottled water. The amount of minerals and the degree of water hardness vary among different countries, and diarrhea might result. Mineral water is available everywhere, and a one liter bottle is around 1.50 L.E. (less than $US ½).
During a Nile cruise, one should avoid the temptation of the traditional saying "whoever drinks the Nile water is sure come back again". The Nile is a habitat of a certain parasite named "Bilharzia" or "Shistosoma". One of the stages of its life cycle may be transmitted to human through direct drinking or swimming in the Nile, particularly near the shore, and causes a serious chronic disease. One can enjoy the legend by drinking a small gulp of tap water, which initially comes from the Nile after purification.
All restaurants licensed to serve food are strictly supervised by the health authorities. However, one should be aware that certain types of traditional food (especially if invited to a house in the countryside) are of a high fatty component. Over consumption of those might lead to diarrhea.
Smoking "sheesha" is fairly popular among low classes, and has recently become a fashion to be served in touristic places for fun. Though the amount of tobacco-like material at such places is usually very mild, one has to keep in mind that he is smoking without a filter. Never forget to use a disposable plastic mouthpiece.
Hopefully, your visit will be fulfilled without any trouble. In case of any mis-happening, always remember that a guest in Egypt is treated like a V.I.P. People are always very happy when asked for help, and even volunteer to do so.
Wishing you a happy and enjoyable visit
Travelers are always worried about medical emergencies they might face in a foreign country. Such worry is always exaggerated when the destination is to a non-Western country. These are usually exaggerated by a false image some people have in their mind about Egypt.
Apart from the historical background of medicine during the ancient and middle ages, medical practice in Egypt has always enjoyed a good reputation in the modern era. Numerous physicians graduating from Egyptian faculties of medicine have a high standard of knowledge worldwide. Students from all over the Arab countries and Africa come to learn medicine, on both under and postgraduate levels. One of the best examples of Egyptian physicians is Sir Magdy Yacoub, the famous cardiac surgeon who graduated from Cairo University. Sir Magdy is currently practicing in UK, and was the first non-British to be knighted by the Queen of England.
The major worry of a visitor is his need for hospitalization in case of an accident or emergency. Modern hospitals are abundant all over the country, both in governmental and private sectors. Governmental hospitals in general, and university hospitals in particular, enjoy a high standard of modern equipment and efficient staff members. On the other hand, numerous private practices are not inferior, with some of them quite near to Western standards. These are also supported by the vast clinical and academic experience of university staff members, who work there as part-timers. In deserted places were medical facilities might be lagging; a major medical emergency is supported by the government. Frequently victims are transported from the scene of a major accident by helicopter to highly specialized centers in Cairo.
Hospitalization in most general hospitals, particularly in emergencies, are free of charge. However, a visitor is always advised to seek a private one, which are still strictly supervised by the health authorities. Hospital charges vary according to different standards, but in general the cost is much less than one would expect at home. It is illegal for a private hospital to reject or transfer any emergency case for financial reasons.
Once a patient is admitted to a private hospital in Egypt, a professor or consultant is immediately assigned to handle the case. The physician is fully responsible for his patient throughout the hospital stay, and is also responsible for coordination with any other colleague of different specialty, if needed.
The choice of the hospital and the consultant in charge might be confusing to a visitor. It is advised to leave this choice to the hotel physician. Most hotels have a resident junior doctor, or at least quick access to several consultants, who can be reached any time through mobile (cellular) phones. Also, embassies usually have contracts with physicians. Contacting the embassy is advised, as its personnel might also review the hospital charges.
In less severe conditions, when a guest needs medical attention beyond the capacity of the hotel physician, he would be directed to private clinics or polyclinics. Almost all physicians run private practices off office hours. Sometimes an appointment is required beforehand, but usually the physician would be very considerate. Consultation fees are variable, with the most expensive being for university staff members. A professor would charge between 100-150 L.E. (1 $US = 3.4 L.E. average) in Cairo. Consultants and specialists (ministry of health physicians) charge less, and prices are less in other cities. Another source to seek consultation are hospitals. A visitor is advised to avoid public ones, and head for the private.
Another worry for a visitor would be his medication, whether regular or incidental ones. Since most international pharmaceutical companies have offices in Egypt practically no drug is unavailable. However a visitor is always advised to carry on him any medicine he regularly uses. Owing to the variability of trade names between different countries, one should not expect his medicine to be labeled the same as he uses it back home. A record of the generic name of the drug is sometimes required. Since most commonly needed medication (as heart medicine and Insulin) have the same trade name worldwide, the problem is rarely encountered. However, some anti-hypertensives might have different names. A qualified pharmacist is always available in his pharmacy (drug store) for help, with no extra fees for this service. All drugs have fixed prices by the government. One only pays what is labeled on the box.
There are no custom restrictions for medication. Moreover, on the occasion of unexpected consumption or loss of the drug, a visitor can enjoy one of the pitfalls of the system. Drugs are available in pharmacies without the strict need of a prescription, except in hypnotics and narcotics. Pharmacies are abundant everywhere. They are easily spotted by the sign of a red crescent, sometimes with a red cross inside.
Visitors are advised to avoid consumption of certain types of food. Though tap water in Egypt is drinkable, foreigners are advised to use bottled water. The amount of minerals and the degree of water hardness vary among different countries, and diarrhea might result. Mineral water is available everywhere, and a one liter bottle is around 1.50 L.E. (less than $US ½).
During a Nile cruise, one should avoid the temptation of the traditional saying "whoever drinks the Nile water is sure come back again". The Nile is a habitat of a certain parasite named "Bilharzia" or "Shistosoma". One of the stages of its life cycle may be transmitted to human through direct drinking or swimming in the Nile, particularly near the shore, and causes a serious chronic disease. One can enjoy the legend by drinking a small gulp of tap water, which initially comes from the Nile after purification.
All restaurants licensed to serve food are strictly supervised by the health authorities. However, one should be aware that certain types of traditional food (especially if invited to a house in the countryside) are of a high fatty component. Over consumption of those might lead to diarrhea.
Smoking "sheesha" is fairly popular among low classes, and has recently become a fashion to be served in touristic places for fun. Though the amount of tobacco-like material at such places is usually very mild, one has to keep in mind that he is smoking without a filter. Never forget to use a disposable plastic mouthpiece.
Hopefully, your visit will be fulfilled without any trouble. In case of any mis-happening, always remember that a guest in Egypt is treated like a V.I.P. People are always very happy when asked for help, and even volunteer to do so.
Wishing you a happy and enjoyable visit
What to Wear
What to Wear
Egypt is a conservative country and visitors should respect this attitude. No topless or nude bathing is permitted.
On the practical side, leave your synthetics at home as they will prove to be too hot in summer and not warm enough in winter - bring materials that breathe. It is advisable to wear cotton in summer as the heat can be like a furnace. In winter wear layers that can be taken off during the heat of the day and put back on for cool evenings.
Wear loose and flowing garments, which are not only modest, but practical in a hot climate. Have you ever wondered why the Bedouin wear layers of flowing robes? Why they cover their heads and the back of their necks? Centuries of living in desert climates have taught them that loose garments keep one cooler and layered garments allow wind to enter and circulate, creating a natural ventilation system. Protecting the head and neck from loss of moisture prevents heat stroke.
Bring comfortable shoes. You will be doing a lot of walking and temple floors are far from even. In summer, wear a hat to protect yourself from the heat of the Egyptian sun.
What to Bring
Above all travel light. Get wheels for your luggage and leave heavy items at home. If you don’t bring a camera you will be sorry. Sunglasses are a must as the sun is very strong in Egypt.
Egypt is a conservative country and visitors should respect this attitude. No topless or nude bathing is permitted.
On the practical side, leave your synthetics at home as they will prove to be too hot in summer and not warm enough in winter - bring materials that breathe. It is advisable to wear cotton in summer as the heat can be like a furnace. In winter wear layers that can be taken off during the heat of the day and put back on for cool evenings.
Wear loose and flowing garments, which are not only modest, but practical in a hot climate. Have you ever wondered why the Bedouin wear layers of flowing robes? Why they cover their heads and the back of their necks? Centuries of living in desert climates have taught them that loose garments keep one cooler and layered garments allow wind to enter and circulate, creating a natural ventilation system. Protecting the head and neck from loss of moisture prevents heat stroke.
Bring comfortable shoes. You will be doing a lot of walking and temple floors are far from even. In summer, wear a hat to protect yourself from the heat of the Egyptian sun.
What to Bring
Above all travel light. Get wheels for your luggage and leave heavy items at home. If you don’t bring a camera you will be sorry. Sunglasses are a must as the sun is very strong in Egypt.
Sunday, November 4, 2007
Weather in Egypt
Weather in Egypt
The Egyptian summer is hot and dry in most of the country, and humid in the Delta and along the Mediterranean Coast. In recent years the humidity has spread to Cairo, and the city swelters in August! Winter is mild with some rain, but usually it is bright, sunny days with cold nights.
During the summertime, sun protection is the most important single consideration for an Egypt trip, especially for the fair-skinned. Wearing a sunhat is essential. Cheap, and pure cotton, sunhats are made locally and available everywhere. Travel clothing should be light and comfortable, 100% cotton clothing is the best and robust shoes are a must! The climate of Egypt is characterized by a hot season from May to October and a cool season from October to May. Extreme temperatures during both seasons are moderated by the prevailing northern winds.
-In the coastal region average annual temperatures range from a maximum of 37° C (99° F) to a minimum of 14° C (57° F). Wide variations of temperature occur in the deserts, ranging from a maximum of 46° C (114° F), during daylight hours, to a minimum of 6° C (42° F) after sunset. During the winter season desert temperatures often drop to 0° C (32° F).
The most humid area is along the Mediterranean coast, where the average annual rainfall is about 200mm. Precipitation decreases rapidly to the south; Cairo receives on average only about 29mm of rain each year, and in many desert locations it may rain only once in several years!
There are 5 days called Khamsin between March and April, when sandstorms can occur sporadically, blowing in different places according to the wind direction.
Winter (between October and May) weather is colder than most people anticipate, and cold winds blow over the desert at sunrise and sunset. Even when it is warm outside, it can be surprisingly cold inside the massive stone Temples. In winter, showers can fall everywhere, so bring a few items of light but warm clothing, so that you can cope with the cold early mornings and the occasional, and unseasonable, cold snap.
Bring one or two dressy outfits along for evenings out, especially for parties, and special occasions or just to get out of your tour clothes! If you are staying in a hotel or on a cruise boat, please be warned that luxury hotels and all the Nile Cruises have efficient, but surprisingly pricey laundry services. If you object to paying 12LE for laundry, you can wash out your T-shirts; just bring some detergent with you, as well as a few yards of clothing line.
Also bring a swimsuit, as most good hotels and cruise ships have nice, warm, swimming pools.
If you are heading out into the desert, you will get dry quickly, so make sure that you have a good stock of water with you. Egyptian mineral water is available everywhere at less than 3LE per bottle. Remember to cover your head at all times
The Egyptian summer is hot and dry in most of the country, and humid in the Delta and along the Mediterranean Coast. In recent years the humidity has spread to Cairo, and the city swelters in August! Winter is mild with some rain, but usually it is bright, sunny days with cold nights.
During the summertime, sun protection is the most important single consideration for an Egypt trip, especially for the fair-skinned. Wearing a sunhat is essential. Cheap, and pure cotton, sunhats are made locally and available everywhere. Travel clothing should be light and comfortable, 100% cotton clothing is the best and robust shoes are a must! The climate of Egypt is characterized by a hot season from May to October and a cool season from October to May. Extreme temperatures during both seasons are moderated by the prevailing northern winds.
-In the coastal region average annual temperatures range from a maximum of 37° C (99° F) to a minimum of 14° C (57° F). Wide variations of temperature occur in the deserts, ranging from a maximum of 46° C (114° F), during daylight hours, to a minimum of 6° C (42° F) after sunset. During the winter season desert temperatures often drop to 0° C (32° F).
The most humid area is along the Mediterranean coast, where the average annual rainfall is about 200mm. Precipitation decreases rapidly to the south; Cairo receives on average only about 29mm of rain each year, and in many desert locations it may rain only once in several years!
There are 5 days called Khamsin between March and April, when sandstorms can occur sporadically, blowing in different places according to the wind direction.
Winter (between October and May) weather is colder than most people anticipate, and cold winds blow over the desert at sunrise and sunset. Even when it is warm outside, it can be surprisingly cold inside the massive stone Temples. In winter, showers can fall everywhere, so bring a few items of light but warm clothing, so that you can cope with the cold early mornings and the occasional, and unseasonable, cold snap.
Bring one or two dressy outfits along for evenings out, especially for parties, and special occasions or just to get out of your tour clothes! If you are staying in a hotel or on a cruise boat, please be warned that luxury hotels and all the Nile Cruises have efficient, but surprisingly pricey laundry services. If you object to paying 12LE for laundry, you can wash out your T-shirts; just bring some detergent with you, as well as a few yards of clothing line.
Also bring a swimsuit, as most good hotels and cruise ships have nice, warm, swimming pools.
If you are heading out into the desert, you will get dry quickly, so make sure that you have a good stock of water with you. Egyptian mineral water is available everywhere at less than 3LE per bottle. Remember to cover your head at all times
Saturday, November 3, 2007
Introduction To Egypt
Egypt is probably the world's oldest civilization having emerged from the Nile Valley around 3,100 BC, historically. Egypt is probably one of the oldest vacation spots. Early Greeks, Romans and others went there just for fun, and to see the wonders of some of mankind's earliest triumphs. But Egypt is much more than Pyramids and monuments. It is also Red Sea scuba diving, hot night spots, luxury hotels and five star restaurants. It is romantic cruises down the Nile on festive river boats, a night at the grand opera and it is a cultural experience like none you have ever experienced. Egypt is a land bustling with life, sound, visual beauty and excitement. More than anything else, we want you to think of Egypt as fun. For thousands of years, it has been the playground of emperors and kings, and we hope you will take the time to find out why.
The Flag of Egypt
The first national flag of modern Egypt was established by a Royal Decree in 1923 when Egypt gained conditional independence from Great Britain in 1922. The color was green with a white crescent and three stars in the middle. In 1958, a Presidential Decree established a new flag for the United Arab Republic which comprised a merger of Syria and Egypt. The new flag had three colors: red, white with 2 green stars and black. The flag was rectangular in shape and the width was one-third of its length. In 1972, the Law was amended to change the flag. The stars were removed from the flag and replaced by a golden hawk. In 1984, the hawk was replaced by a golden eagle on the eagle of Saladdin, the Ayubbid Sultan who ruled Egypt and Syria in 12th Century, the same Saladdin of the Crusades.
Color Symbolism
The color red refers to the period before 1952 Revolution which brought a group of army officers to power after deposing King Farouk, then King of Egypt. This was a period characterized by the struggle against the British occupation of the country.
The white symbolizes the advent of the 1952 Revolution which ended the monarchy without bloodshed. The color black symbolizes the end of the opression of the people of Egypt at the hands of the Monarchy and British colonialism.Rules Governing the Hoisting of the Flag
The national flag is hoisted on all governmental buildings on Fridays, official holidays, on the inauguration of the People’s Assembly session and other occasions on which the Minister of Interior orders that the flag be hoisted. The flag is hoisted daily on border posts and customs buildings. It is also hoisted on Egyptian consulates and embassies overseas on the National Day and other national occasions, as well as during the visit of the President to the country hoisting the diplomatic mission.Penal Provisions for Contempt of the Flag
The national flag is hoisted on all governmental buildings on Fridays, official holidays, on the inauguration of the People’s Assembly session and other occasions on which the Minister of Interior orders that the flag be hoisted. The flag is hoisted daily on border posts and customs buildings. It is also hoisted on Egyptian consulates and embassies overseas on the National Day and other national occasions, as well as during the visit of the President to the country hoisting the diplomatic mission.Penal Provisions for Contempt of the Flag
Abusing the flag in any way is a criminal offense and is punishable under law as it implies contempt of the power of the state. Penal provisions also govern abuse of foreign flags or national emblems of other countries.
my hallowed land,Only to you,
is my due hearty love at command,
My homeland, my homeland, my hallowed land,
Only to you is my due hearty love at command,Mother of the great ancient land,
My sacred wish and holy demand,
All should love,
awe and cherish thee,Gracious is thy Nile to humanity
,No evil hand can harm or do you wrong
,So long as your free sons are strong,
My homeland, my homeland, my hallowed land,
Only to you, is my due hearty love at command.
Words and Music by Sayed Darwish. This national anthem was adapted after 1979. Prior to that, the National Anthem was "Walla Zaman Ya Selahy" (Oh, My Weapon) with words by Salah Shahyrn and Music by Kamal Atawyl.
Words and Music by Sayed Darwish. This national anthem was adapted after 1979. Prior to that, the National Anthem was "Walla Zaman Ya Selahy" (Oh, My Weapon) with words by Salah Shahyrn and Music by Kamal Atawyl.
Introduction
The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure.
Geography
Location:
Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula
Geographic coordinates:
27 00 N, 30 00 E
Map references:
Africa
Area:
total: 1,001,450 sq km land: 995,450 sq km water: 6,000 sq km
Area - comparative:
slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico
Land boundaries:
total: 2,665 km border countries: Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 266 km, Libya 1,115 km, Sudan 1,273 km
Coastline:
2,450 km
Maritime claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
Climate:
desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters
Terrain:
vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Qattara Depression -133 m highest point: Mount Catherine 2,629 m
Natural resources:
petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc
Land use:
arable land: 2.92% permanent crops: 0.5% other: 96.58% (2005)
Irrigated land:
34,220 sq km (2003)
Natural hazards:
periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms
Environment - current issues:
agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources
Environment - international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - note:
controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics; dependence on upstream neighbors; dominance of Nile basin issues; prone to influxes of refugees
Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula
Geographic coordinates:
27 00 N, 30 00 E
Map references:
Africa
Area:
total: 1,001,450 sq km land: 995,450 sq km water: 6,000 sq km
Area - comparative:
slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico
Land boundaries:
total: 2,665 km border countries: Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 266 km, Libya 1,115 km, Sudan 1,273 km
Coastline:
2,450 km
Maritime claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
Climate:
desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters
Terrain:
vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Qattara Depression -133 m highest point: Mount Catherine 2,629 m
Natural resources:
petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc
Land use:
arable land: 2.92% permanent crops: 0.5% other: 96.58% (2005)
Irrigated land:
34,220 sq km (2003)
Natural hazards:
periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms
Environment - current issues:
agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources
Environment - international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - note:
controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics; dependence on upstream neighbors; dominance of Nile basin issues; prone to influxes of refugees
People
Population:
80,335,036 (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:
0-14 years: 32.2% (male 13,234,428/female 12,631,681) 15-64 years: 63.2% (male 25,688,703/female 25,082,200) 65 years and over: 4.6% (male 1,576,376/female 2,121,648) (2007 est.)
Median age:
total: 24.2 years male: 23.9 years female: 24.6 years (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:
1.721% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:
22.53 births/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Death rate:
5.11 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Net migration rate:
-0.21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.048 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.024 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.743 male(s)/female total population: 1.017 male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant mortality rate:
total: 29.5 deaths/1,000 live births male: 31.22 deaths/1,000 live births female: 27.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
total population: 71.57 years male: 69.04 years female: 74.22 years (2007 est.)
Total fertility rate:
2.77 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
12,000 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:
700 (2003 est.)
Nationality:
noun: Egyptian(s) adjective: Egyptian
Ethnic groups:
Egyptian 98%, Berber, Nubian, Bedouin, and Beja 1%, Greek, Armenian, other European (primarily Italian and French) 1%
Religions:
Muslim (mostly Sunni) 90%, Coptic 9%, other Christian 1%
Languages:
Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 71.4% male: 83% female: 59.4% (2005 est.)
80,335,036 (July 2007 est.)
Age structure:
0-14 years: 32.2% (male 13,234,428/female 12,631,681) 15-64 years: 63.2% (male 25,688,703/female 25,082,200) 65 years and over: 4.6% (male 1,576,376/female 2,121,648) (2007 est.)
Median age:
total: 24.2 years male: 23.9 years female: 24.6 years (2007 est.)
Population growth rate:
1.721% (2007 est.)
Birth rate:
22.53 births/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Death rate:
5.11 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Net migration rate:
-0.21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.048 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.024 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.743 male(s)/female total population: 1.017 male(s)/female (2007 est.)
Infant mortality rate:
total: 29.5 deaths/1,000 live births male: 31.22 deaths/1,000 live births female: 27.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
total population: 71.57 years male: 69.04 years female: 74.22 years (2007 est.)
Total fertility rate:
2.77 children born/woman (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
12,000 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:
700 (2003 est.)
Nationality:
noun: Egyptian(s) adjective: Egyptian
Ethnic groups:
Egyptian 98%, Berber, Nubian, Bedouin, and Beja 1%, Greek, Armenian, other European (primarily Italian and French) 1%
Religions:
Muslim (mostly Sunni) 90%, Coptic 9%, other Christian 1%
Languages:
Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 71.4% male: 83% female: 59.4% (2005 est.)
Government
Government
Egypt
Country name:
conventional long form: Arab Republic of Egypt conventional short form: Egypt local long form: Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah local short form: Misr former: United Arab Republic (with Syria)
Government type:
republic
Capital:
name: Cairo geographic coordinates: 30 03 N, 31 15 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Friday in April; ends last Thursday in September
Administrative divisions:
26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma'iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, As Suways, Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id, Dumyat, Janub Sina', Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina', Suhaj
Independence:
28 February 1922 (from UK)
National holiday:
Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)
Constitution:
11 September 1971; amended 22 May 1980 and 25 May 2005
Legal system:
based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:
18 years of age; universal and compulsory
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (since 14 October 1981) head of government: Prime Minister Ahmed NAZIF (since 9 July 2004) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for six-year term (no term limits); note - a national referendum in May 2005 approved a constitutional amendment that changed the presidential election to a multicandidate popular vote; previously the president was nominated by the People's Assembly and the nomination was validated by a national, popular referendum; last referendum held 26 September 1999; first election under terms of constitutional amendment held 7 September 2005; next election scheduled for 2011 election results: Hosni MUBARAK reelected president; percent of vote - Hosni MUBARAK 88.6%, Ayman NOUR 7.6%, Noman GOMAA 2.9%
Legislative branch:
bicameral system consists of the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura that functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve six-year terms; mid-term elections for half of the elected members) elections: People's Assembly - three-phase voting - last held 7 and 20 November, 1 December 2005;(next to be held November-December 2010); Advisory Council - last held May-June 2007 (next to be held May-June 2010) election results: People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDP 311, NWP 6, Tagammu 2, Tomorrow Party 1, independents 112 (12 seats to be determined by rerun elections, 10 seats appointed by President); Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDP 84, Tagammu 1, independents 3
Judicial branch:
Supreme Constitutional Court
Political parties and leaders:
National Democratic Party or NDP (governing party) [Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK]; National Progressive Unionist Grouping or Tagammu [Rifaat EL-SAID]; New Wafd Party or NWP [Mahmoud ABAZA]; Tomorrow Party [Naji AL-GHATRIFI] note: formation of political parties must be approved by the government
Political pressure groups and leaders:
despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes Hosni MUBARAK's potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAK tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but moved more aggressively since then to block its influence; civic society groups are sanctioned, but constrained in practical terms; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned
International organization participation:
ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, COMESA, EBRD, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, ONUB, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Nabil FAHMY chancery: 3521 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 895-5400 FAX: [1] (202) 244-4319 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, New York, San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Francis J. RICCIARDONE, Jr. embassy: 8 Kamal El Din Salah St., Garden City, Cairo mailing address: Unit 64900, Box 15, APO AE 09839-4900 telephone: [20] (2) 797-3300 FAX: [20] (2) 797-3200
Flag description:
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; design is based on the Arab Liberation flag and similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars, Iraq, which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band
Egypt
Country name:
conventional long form: Arab Republic of Egypt conventional short form: Egypt local long form: Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah local short form: Misr former: United Arab Republic (with Syria)
Government type:
republic
Capital:
name: Cairo geographic coordinates: 30 03 N, 31 15 E time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time) daylight saving time: +1hr, begins last Friday in April; ends last Thursday in September
Administrative divisions:
26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma'iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, As Suways, Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id, Dumyat, Janub Sina', Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina', Suhaj
Independence:
28 February 1922 (from UK)
National holiday:
Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)
Constitution:
11 September 1971; amended 22 May 1980 and 25 May 2005
Legal system:
based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:
18 years of age; universal and compulsory
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (since 14 October 1981) head of government: Prime Minister Ahmed NAZIF (since 9 July 2004) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for six-year term (no term limits); note - a national referendum in May 2005 approved a constitutional amendment that changed the presidential election to a multicandidate popular vote; previously the president was nominated by the People's Assembly and the nomination was validated by a national, popular referendum; last referendum held 26 September 1999; first election under terms of constitutional amendment held 7 September 2005; next election scheduled for 2011 election results: Hosni MUBARAK reelected president; percent of vote - Hosni MUBARAK 88.6%, Ayman NOUR 7.6%, Noman GOMAA 2.9%
Legislative branch:
bicameral system consists of the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura that functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve six-year terms; mid-term elections for half of the elected members) elections: People's Assembly - three-phase voting - last held 7 and 20 November, 1 December 2005;(next to be held November-December 2010); Advisory Council - last held May-June 2007 (next to be held May-June 2010) election results: People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDP 311, NWP 6, Tagammu 2, Tomorrow Party 1, independents 112 (12 seats to be determined by rerun elections, 10 seats appointed by President); Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDP 84, Tagammu 1, independents 3
Judicial branch:
Supreme Constitutional Court
Political parties and leaders:
National Democratic Party or NDP (governing party) [Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK]; National Progressive Unionist Grouping or Tagammu [Rifaat EL-SAID]; New Wafd Party or NWP [Mahmoud ABAZA]; Tomorrow Party [Naji AL-GHATRIFI] note: formation of political parties must be approved by the government
Political pressure groups and leaders:
despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes Hosni MUBARAK's potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAK tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but moved more aggressively since then to block its influence; civic society groups are sanctioned, but constrained in practical terms; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned
International organization participation:
ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, COMESA, EBRD, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, ONUB, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Nabil FAHMY chancery: 3521 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 895-5400 FAX: [1] (202) 244-4319 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, New York, San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Francis J. RICCIARDONE, Jr. embassy: 8 Kamal El Din Salah St., Garden City, Cairo mailing address: Unit 64900, Box 15, APO AE 09839-4900 telephone: [20] (2) 797-3300 FAX: [20] (2) 797-3200
Flag description:
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; design is based on the Arab Liberation flag and similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars, Iraq, which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band
Economy
Economy - overview:
Occupying the northeast corner of the African continent, Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile valley, where most economic activity takes place. In the last 30 years, the government has reformed the highly centralized economy it inherited from President NASSER. In 2005, Prime Minister Ahmed NAZIF reduced personal and corporate tax rates, reduced energy subsidies, and privatized several enterprises. The stock market boomed, and GDP grew about 5% per year in 2005-06. Despite these achievements, the government has failed to raise living standards for the average Egyptian, and has had to continue providing subsidies for basic necessities. The subsidies have contributed to a growing budget deficit - more than 10% of GDP each year - and represent a significant drain on the economy. Foreign direct investment remains low. To achieve higher GDP growth the NAZIF government will need to continue its aggressive pursuit of reform, especially in the energy sector. Egypt's export sectors - particularly natural gas - have bright prospects.
GDP (purchasing power parity):
$334.4 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):
$85.37 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:
6.8% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):
$4,200 (2006 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:
agriculture: 14.1% industry: 38.4% services: 47.5% (2006 est.)
Labor force:
21.8 million (2006 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:
agriculture: 32% industry: 17% services: 51% (2001 est.)
Unemployment rate:
10.3% (2006 est.)
Population below poverty line:
20% (2005 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: 4.4% highest 10%: 25% (1995)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:
34.4 (2001)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):
7.7% (2006 est.)
Investment (gross fixed):
18.7% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget:
revenues: $27.01 billion expenditures: $35.48 billion; including capital expenditures of $2.7 billion (2006 est.)
Public debt:
113.4% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture - products:
cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats
Industries:
textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbons, construction, cement, metals, light manufactures
Industrial production growth rate:
5.1% (2006 est.)
Electricity - production:
91.72 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity - consumption:
84.49 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity - exports:
1 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity - imports:
200 million kWh (2004)
Oil - production:
700,000 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - consumption:
590,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports:
152,600 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - imports:
NA bbl/day
Oil - proved reserves:
3.8 billion bbl (2006 est.)
Natural gas - production:
32.56 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:
31.46 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - exports:
1.1 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:
1.657 trillion cu m (1 January 2005 est.)
Current account balance:
$2.731 billion (2006 est.)
Exports:
$20.55 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports - commodities:
crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
Exports - partners:
Italy 12.1%, US 11.3%, Spain 8.5%, UK 5.5%, France 5.4%, Syria 5.1%, Saudi Arabia 4.3%, Germany 4.1% (2006)
Imports:
$33.1 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports - commodities:
machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
Imports - partners:
US 11.3%, China 8.2%, Germany 6.3%, Italy 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5%, France 4.6% (2006)
Economic aid - recipient:
ODA, $1.12 billion (2002)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
$25.58 billion (2006 est.)
Debt - external:
$31.93 billion (2006 est.)
Currency (code):
Egyptian pound (EGP)
Exchange rates:
Egyptian pounds per US dollar - 5.725 (2006), 5.78 (2005), 6.1962 (2004), 5.8509 (2003), 4.4997 (2002)
Fiscal year:
1 July - 30 June
Occupying the northeast corner of the African continent, Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile valley, where most economic activity takes place. In the last 30 years, the government has reformed the highly centralized economy it inherited from President NASSER. In 2005, Prime Minister Ahmed NAZIF reduced personal and corporate tax rates, reduced energy subsidies, and privatized several enterprises. The stock market boomed, and GDP grew about 5% per year in 2005-06. Despite these achievements, the government has failed to raise living standards for the average Egyptian, and has had to continue providing subsidies for basic necessities. The subsidies have contributed to a growing budget deficit - more than 10% of GDP each year - and represent a significant drain on the economy. Foreign direct investment remains low. To achieve higher GDP growth the NAZIF government will need to continue its aggressive pursuit of reform, especially in the energy sector. Egypt's export sectors - particularly natural gas - have bright prospects.
GDP (purchasing power parity):
$334.4 billion (2006 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):
$85.37 billion (2006 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:
6.8% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):
$4,200 (2006 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:
agriculture: 14.1% industry: 38.4% services: 47.5% (2006 est.)
Labor force:
21.8 million (2006 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:
agriculture: 32% industry: 17% services: 51% (2001 est.)
Unemployment rate:
10.3% (2006 est.)
Population below poverty line:
20% (2005 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: 4.4% highest 10%: 25% (1995)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:
34.4 (2001)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):
7.7% (2006 est.)
Investment (gross fixed):
18.7% of GDP (2006 est.)
Budget:
revenues: $27.01 billion expenditures: $35.48 billion; including capital expenditures of $2.7 billion (2006 est.)
Public debt:
113.4% of GDP (2006 est.)
Agriculture - products:
cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats
Industries:
textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbons, construction, cement, metals, light manufactures
Industrial production growth rate:
5.1% (2006 est.)
Electricity - production:
91.72 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity - consumption:
84.49 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity - exports:
1 billion kWh (2004)
Electricity - imports:
200 million kWh (2004)
Oil - production:
700,000 bbl/day (2005 est.)
Oil - consumption:
590,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - exports:
152,600 bbl/day (2004 est.)
Oil - imports:
NA bbl/day
Oil - proved reserves:
3.8 billion bbl (2006 est.)
Natural gas - production:
32.56 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:
31.46 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - exports:
1.1 billion cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - imports:
0 cu m (2004 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:
1.657 trillion cu m (1 January 2005 est.)
Current account balance:
$2.731 billion (2006 est.)
Exports:
$20.55 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Exports - commodities:
crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
Exports - partners:
Italy 12.1%, US 11.3%, Spain 8.5%, UK 5.5%, France 5.4%, Syria 5.1%, Saudi Arabia 4.3%, Germany 4.1% (2006)
Imports:
$33.1 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)
Imports - commodities:
machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
Imports - partners:
US 11.3%, China 8.2%, Germany 6.3%, Italy 5.4%, Saudi Arabia 5%, France 4.6% (2006)
Economic aid - recipient:
ODA, $1.12 billion (2002)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
$25.58 billion (2006 est.)
Debt - external:
$31.93 billion (2006 est.)
Currency (code):
Egyptian pound (EGP)
Exchange rates:
Egyptian pounds per US dollar - 5.725 (2006), 5.78 (2005), 6.1962 (2004), 5.8509 (2003), 4.4997 (2002)
Fiscal year:
1 July - 30 June
Communications
Telephones - main lines in use:
10.808 million (2006)
Telephones - mobile cellular:
18.001 million (2006)
Telephone system:
general assessment: large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Internet access and cellular service are available domestic: principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay international: country code - 20; 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel (1998)
Radio broadcast stations:
AM 42 (plus 15 repeaters), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)
Television broadcast stations:
98 (September 1995)
Internet country code:
.eg
Internet hosts:
5,363 (2007)
Internet users:
6 million (2006)
10.808 million (2006)
Telephones - mobile cellular:
18.001 million (2006)
Telephone system:
general assessment: large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Internet access and cellular service are available domestic: principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay international: country code - 20; 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel (1998)
Radio broadcast stations:
AM 42 (plus 15 repeaters), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)
Television broadcast stations:
98 (September 1995)
Internet country code:
.eg
Internet hosts:
5,363 (2007)
Internet users:
6 million (2006)
Transportation
Railways:
total: 5,063 km standard gauge: 5,063 km 1.435-m gauge (62 km electrified) (2006)
Roadways:
total: 92,370 km paved: 74,820 km unpaved: 17,550 km (2004)
Waterways:
3,500 km note: includes Nile River, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in delta; Suez Canal (193.5 km including approaches) navigable by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 17.68 m (2006)
Pipelines:
condensate 464 km; condensate/gas 94 km; gas 6,021 km; liquid petroleum gas 897 km; oil 5,120 km; oil/gas/water 36 km; refined products 897 km (2006)
Ports and harbors:
Alexandria, Al Ghardaqah, Aswan, Asyut, Bur Safajah, Damietta, Marsa Matruh, Port Said, Suez
Merchant marine:
total: 77 ships (1000 GRT or over) 1,032,116 GRT/1,553,065 DWT by type: bulk carrier 13, cargo 33, container 2, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 14, roll on/roll off 10 foreign-owned: 10 (Denmark 1, Greece 8, Lebanon 1) registered in other countries: 55 (Bolivia 1, Cambodia 14, Georgia 14, Honduras 4, North Korea 1, Panama 13, Sao Tome and Principe 1, Saudi Arabia 1, St Kitts and Nevis 2, St Vincent and The Grenadines 4) (2007)
Airports:
88 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:
total: 72 over 3,047 m: 15 2,438 to 3,047 m: 36 1,524 to 2,437 m: 16 under 914 m: 5 (2007) Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 16 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 7 (2007)
Heliports:
3 (2007)
total: 5,063 km standard gauge: 5,063 km 1.435-m gauge (62 km electrified) (2006)
Roadways:
total: 92,370 km paved: 74,820 km unpaved: 17,550 km (2004)
Waterways:
3,500 km note: includes Nile River, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in delta; Suez Canal (193.5 km including approaches) navigable by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 17.68 m (2006)
Pipelines:
condensate 464 km; condensate/gas 94 km; gas 6,021 km; liquid petroleum gas 897 km; oil 5,120 km; oil/gas/water 36 km; refined products 897 km (2006)
Ports and harbors:
Alexandria, Al Ghardaqah, Aswan, Asyut, Bur Safajah, Damietta, Marsa Matruh, Port Said, Suez
Merchant marine:
total: 77 ships (1000 GRT or over) 1,032,116 GRT/1,553,065 DWT by type: bulk carrier 13, cargo 33, container 2, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 14, roll on/roll off 10 foreign-owned: 10 (Denmark 1, Greece 8, Lebanon 1) registered in other countries: 55 (Bolivia 1, Cambodia 14, Georgia 14, Honduras 4, North Korea 1, Panama 13, Sao Tome and Principe 1, Saudi Arabia 1, St Kitts and Nevis 2, St Vincent and The Grenadines 4) (2007)
Airports:
88 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:
total: 72 over 3,047 m: 15 2,438 to 3,047 m: 36 1,524 to 2,437 m: 16 under 914 m: 5 (2007) Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 16 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 7 (2007)
Heliports:
3 (2007)
About Egyptian Pyramids
There are no more famous ancient sites within Egypt, or for that matter elsewhere in the world, than the Great Pyramids at Giza. They are, without question, the icon most associated with the Egypt. They have been both the main destination for tourists, and a source of imaginative thought to the world for over three thousand years.
However, there are actually over 100 pyramids in Egypt, many of which are relatively unknown to anyone who is not an ancient Egypt enthusiast. All but a very few are grouped around and near the City of Cairo, just south of the Nile Delta. Otherwise, only one royal pyramid is known in southern Egypt (at Abydos), that being the one built by Ahmose, founder of the 18th Dynasty and Egypt's New Kingdom. It may have also been the last royal pyramid built in Egypt.
Hence, major pyramids were not built throughout Egypt's ancient history. The Pyramid Age began with a burst of building, starting with the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser. Some of the early kings, most specifically Snefru, built more than one pyramid. Almost all of the kings added to their number through the end of the Middle Kingdom, with the possible exception of the First Intermediate Period between the Old and Middle Kingdoms. After the first Pharaoh of Egypt's New Kingdom, Ahmose, royal pyramid building by Egyptians ceased entirely. Somewhat abruptly the kings of the New Kingdom chose, rather than making their tombs completely obvious, to hide them in the hills of the West Bank of Thebes (modern Luxor).
However, smaller pyramids were constructed, for example in the Deir el-Medina necropolis, by private individuals. The Late Period Nubians who ruled Egypt also built relatively small pyramids with much steeper sides, though these were in fact constructed in Nubia itself. This tradition was carried on in Nubia after these southern rulers lost control of Egypt, and eventually, more pyramids were actually built in Nubia than Egypt, though on a much smaller scale.
Other pyramids in the world certainly exist, but their purpose, for the most part, was different than those of ancient Egypt. The most famous outside Egypt are probably those located in Mexico and to the south of Mexico, but these appear to have been built more as temples. In Egypt, all but a select few of the pyramids were built as tombs, sometimes to hold the physical body of a pharaoh (as well as other individuals), or to hold the soul of the deceased (as in the case of the small cult pyramids built next to the larger ones). Otherwise, the purpose of only a few small, regional stepped pyramids remains elusive.
While pyramids were, for the most part, tombs for the Pharaohs of Egypt, one must nevertheless question the reason that Egyptian rulers chose this particular shape, and for that matter, why they built them so large. Today, we believe that they chose the shape in order to mimic the Benben, a pyramid shaped stone found in the earliest of temples, which itself is thought to symbolize the primeval mound from which the Egyptians believed life emerged. This also connected the pyramid to Re, the Sun God, as it was he, according to some of the ancient Egypt mythology, who rose from the primeval mound to create life.
As far the great size of many of the pyramids in Egypt, we can really only surmise that the Pharaohs were making a statement about their own power and perhaps, about the glory and strength of their country. However, it should also be remembered that many of the latter pyramids were not nearly as large as the Great Pyramids at Giza (and elsewhere).
Pyramids evolved. The first of them was not a perfectly formed pyramid. In fact, the first Pyramid we believe that was built in Egypt, that of Djoser, was not a true pyramid at all with smooth sides and a point at the top. Rather, its sides were stepped, and the top of the pyramid truncated with a flat surface (as best we know). As the Egyptian pyramids evolved, there were failures as well glorious failures until finally, they got it right with what was probably the first smooth sided true pyramid built at Meidum. In fact, pyramids continued to evolve throughout their history, perhaps not always in outward appearances, but in the way that they were built and in the theology surrounding their construction. For example, towards the latter part of Egypt's Pyramid Age, Osirian beliefs seem to have had more and more impact on the arrangement and layout of the subterranean chambers.
However, soon after the first pyramids were built, their form became somewhat standardized. Royal pyramid complexes included the main pyramid, a courtyard surrounding the main pyramid, a much smaller cult pyramid for the king's soul, a mortuary temple situated next to the main pyramid, an enclosure wall and a causeway that led down to a valley temple. Some pyramid complexes included subsidiary, smaller pyramids for family members, and most were surrounded by some sort of tombs for family members.
Our thinking on pyramids has evolved considerably over the years. Many of us who are a bit older were taught that the pyramids were built using Jewish slave labor, which is a fabrication of immense proportions. Most of the pyramids were built long before the Jews made their appearance historically and currently, many if not most scholars believe they were not built using slave labor at all (or perhaps a nominal number of slaves).
Otherwise, we can also dismiss offhand alternative theories related to aliens or some lost culture being responsible for pyramid building. There is just far too much evidence, including tools, drawings, evolutionary changes, and even worker villages that rule these farfetched ideas obsolete.
However, some mysteries remain, even in some of the best well known Pyramids. The most famous of them all, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, continues, year after year, to give up a few more secrets, and there doubtless remains much to learn from these Egyptian treasures. There may even be one or more pyramids yet to be discovered
However, there are actually over 100 pyramids in Egypt, many of which are relatively unknown to anyone who is not an ancient Egypt enthusiast. All but a very few are grouped around and near the City of Cairo, just south of the Nile Delta. Otherwise, only one royal pyramid is known in southern Egypt (at Abydos), that being the one built by Ahmose, founder of the 18th Dynasty and Egypt's New Kingdom. It may have also been the last royal pyramid built in Egypt.
Hence, major pyramids were not built throughout Egypt's ancient history. The Pyramid Age began with a burst of building, starting with the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser. Some of the early kings, most specifically Snefru, built more than one pyramid. Almost all of the kings added to their number through the end of the Middle Kingdom, with the possible exception of the First Intermediate Period between the Old and Middle Kingdoms. After the first Pharaoh of Egypt's New Kingdom, Ahmose, royal pyramid building by Egyptians ceased entirely. Somewhat abruptly the kings of the New Kingdom chose, rather than making their tombs completely obvious, to hide them in the hills of the West Bank of Thebes (modern Luxor).
However, smaller pyramids were constructed, for example in the Deir el-Medina necropolis, by private individuals. The Late Period Nubians who ruled Egypt also built relatively small pyramids with much steeper sides, though these were in fact constructed in Nubia itself. This tradition was carried on in Nubia after these southern rulers lost control of Egypt, and eventually, more pyramids were actually built in Nubia than Egypt, though on a much smaller scale.
Other pyramids in the world certainly exist, but their purpose, for the most part, was different than those of ancient Egypt. The most famous outside Egypt are probably those located in Mexico and to the south of Mexico, but these appear to have been built more as temples. In Egypt, all but a select few of the pyramids were built as tombs, sometimes to hold the physical body of a pharaoh (as well as other individuals), or to hold the soul of the deceased (as in the case of the small cult pyramids built next to the larger ones). Otherwise, the purpose of only a few small, regional stepped pyramids remains elusive.
While pyramids were, for the most part, tombs for the Pharaohs of Egypt, one must nevertheless question the reason that Egyptian rulers chose this particular shape, and for that matter, why they built them so large. Today, we believe that they chose the shape in order to mimic the Benben, a pyramid shaped stone found in the earliest of temples, which itself is thought to symbolize the primeval mound from which the Egyptians believed life emerged. This also connected the pyramid to Re, the Sun God, as it was he, according to some of the ancient Egypt mythology, who rose from the primeval mound to create life.
As far the great size of many of the pyramids in Egypt, we can really only surmise that the Pharaohs were making a statement about their own power and perhaps, about the glory and strength of their country. However, it should also be remembered that many of the latter pyramids were not nearly as large as the Great Pyramids at Giza (and elsewhere).
Pyramids evolved. The first of them was not a perfectly formed pyramid. In fact, the first Pyramid we believe that was built in Egypt, that of Djoser, was not a true pyramid at all with smooth sides and a point at the top. Rather, its sides were stepped, and the top of the pyramid truncated with a flat surface (as best we know). As the Egyptian pyramids evolved, there were failures as well glorious failures until finally, they got it right with what was probably the first smooth sided true pyramid built at Meidum. In fact, pyramids continued to evolve throughout their history, perhaps not always in outward appearances, but in the way that they were built and in the theology surrounding their construction. For example, towards the latter part of Egypt's Pyramid Age, Osirian beliefs seem to have had more and more impact on the arrangement and layout of the subterranean chambers.
However, soon after the first pyramids were built, their form became somewhat standardized. Royal pyramid complexes included the main pyramid, a courtyard surrounding the main pyramid, a much smaller cult pyramid for the king's soul, a mortuary temple situated next to the main pyramid, an enclosure wall and a causeway that led down to a valley temple. Some pyramid complexes included subsidiary, smaller pyramids for family members, and most were surrounded by some sort of tombs for family members.
Our thinking on pyramids has evolved considerably over the years. Many of us who are a bit older were taught that the pyramids were built using Jewish slave labor, which is a fabrication of immense proportions. Most of the pyramids were built long before the Jews made their appearance historically and currently, many if not most scholars believe they were not built using slave labor at all (or perhaps a nominal number of slaves).
Otherwise, we can also dismiss offhand alternative theories related to aliens or some lost culture being responsible for pyramid building. There is just far too much evidence, including tools, drawings, evolutionary changes, and even worker villages that rule these farfetched ideas obsolete.
However, some mysteries remain, even in some of the best well known Pyramids. The most famous of them all, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, continues, year after year, to give up a few more secrets, and there doubtless remains much to learn from these Egyptian treasures. There may even be one or more pyramids yet to be discovered
Friday, November 2, 2007
History of Egypt
About Egypt
The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many regard as one of the fountainheads of Western culture, cannot be established with certainty. Archaeological evidence suggests that early dwellers in the Nile Valley were influenced by cultures of the Near East, but the degree of this influence is yet to be determined. Describing the development of Egyptian civilization, like attempts to identify its intellectual foundations, is largely a process of conjecture based on archaeological discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and monuments, many of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have provided priceless data.
The framework for the study of the Dynastic period of Egyptian history, between the 1st dynasty and the Ptolemaic period, relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a Ptolemaic priest of the 3rd century BC, who organized the country's rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families. General agreement exists on the division of Egyptian history, up to the conquest of Alexander the Great, into Old, Middle, and New kingdoms with intermediate periods, followed by the late and Ptolemaic periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of increasingly sophisticated dating techniques.
Prehistory
Some 60,000 years ago the Nile River began its yearly inundation of the land along its banks, leaving behind rich alluvial soil. Areas close to the floodplain became attractive as a source of food and water. In time, climatic changes, including periods of aridity, further served to confine human habitation to the Nile Valley, although this was not always true. From the Chalcolithic period (the Copper age, beginning about 4000 BC) into the early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently used an extended part of the land.
In the 7th millennium BC, Egypt was environmentally hospitable, and evidence of settlements from that time has been found in the low desert areas of southern, or Upper, Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered at Nubian sites in modern Sudan. Enough pottery has been found in Upper Egyptian tombs from the 4th millennium BC (in the Predynastic period) to establish a relative dating sequence. The Predynastic period, which ends with the unification of Egypt under one king, is generally subdivided into three parts, each of which refers to the site at which its archaeological materials were found: Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II and III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded datable archaeological material of apparent cultural continuity but no long-term sequences such as those found in the south.
Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period
Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late Gerzean period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political force that was to become the consolidating element in the first united kingdom of ancient Egypt. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing dates from this period; soon the names of early rulers began to appear on monuments. This period began with a 0 Dynasty, which had as many as 13 rulers, ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC), followed by the 1st and 2nd dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with at least 17 kings. Some of the earliest massive mortuary structures (predecessors of the pyramids) were built at Abydos, and elsewhere during the 1st and 2nd dynasties.
The Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five centuries of rule by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. The capital was in the north, at Memphis, and the ruling monarchs held absolute power over a strongly unified government. Religion played an important role; in fact, the government had evolved into a theocracy, wherein the pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both absolute monarchs and, also gods on earth.
The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and its second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about 2737-2717 BC, emphasized national unity by balancing northern and southern motifs in his mortuary buildings at Sakkara . His architect, Imhotep, used stone blocks rather than traditional mud bricks in the complex there, thus creating the first monumental structure of stone; its central element, the Step Pyramid, was Zoser's tomb. In order to deal with affairs of state and to administer construction projects, the king began to develop an effective bureaucracy. In general, the 3rd Dynasty marked the beginning of a golden age of cultural freshness and vigor.
The 4th Dynasty began with King senfru , whose building projects included the first true pyramid at Dahshor (south of sakkara ). Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom extensive documents remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya and was active in the Sinai. Promoting commerce and mining, he brought prosperity to the kingdom. Snefru was succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops), who built the Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of his reign, that monument not only attests to his power but also indicates the administrative skills the bureaucracy had gained. Khufu's son Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-2603 BC, introduced the solar element (Ra, or Re) in the royal titular and the religion. Khafre (or Chephren), another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother to the throne and built his mortuary complex at Giza. The remaining rulers of the dynasty included Menkaure, or Mycerinus, who reigned about 2578-2553 BC; he is known primarily for the smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza.
Under the 4th Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a peak in its development, and this high level was generally maintained in the 5th and 6th dynasties. The splendour of the engineering feats of the pyramids was approximated in every other field of endeavour, including architecture, sculpture, painting, navigation, the industrial arts and sciences, and astronomy; Memphite astronomers first created a solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Old Kingdom physicians also displayed a remarkable knowledge of physiology, surgery, the circulatory system of the body, and antiseptics.
Beginning of Decline:
Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with extensive foreign trade and military incursions into Asia, signs of decreasing royal authority became apparent in the swelling of the bureaucracy and the enhanced power of no royal administrators. The last king of the dynasty, Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407 BC, was buried at sakkara , with a body of religious spells, called Pyramid Texts, carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber. Such texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th Dynasty. Several autobiographical inscriptions of officials under the 6th Dynasty indicate the decreasing status of the monarchy; records even indicate a conspiracy against King Pepi I, who reigned about 2395-2360 BC, in which the ruler's wife was involved. It is believed that during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned about 2350-2260 BC, power may have been in the hands of his vizier (chief minister). Central authority over the economy was also diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes. The Nomes (districts) were rapidly becoming individually powerful, as the monarchs—governors of the districts—were beginning to remain in place rather than being periodically transferred to different Nomes.
First Intermediate Period
The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First Intermediate period. As a consequence of internal strife, the reigns of this and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are rather obscure. It is clear, however, that both ruled from Memphis and lasted a total of only 25 years. By this time the powerful nomarchs were in effective control of their districts, and factions in the south and north vied for power. Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and 10th dynasties, the nomarchs near Heracleopolis controlled their area and extended their power north to Memphis (and even into the delta) and south to Asyut (Lycopolis). The rival southern nomarchs at Thebes established the 11th Dynasty, controlling the area from Abydos to Elephantine, near Syene (present-day Aswan). The early part of this dynasty, the first of the Middle Kingdom, overlapped the last part of the 10th.
The Middle Kingdom:
Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no longer effective, and regional concerns were openly championed. Egyptian art became more provincial, and no massive mortuary complexes were built. The religion was also democratized, as commoners claimed prerogatives previously reserved for royalty alone. They could, for instance, use spells derived from the royal Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own coffins or tombs.
Reunification
Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally dated to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly begins with the reunification of the land by Mentuhotep II, who reigned 2061-2010 BC. The early rulers of the dynasty attempted to extend their control from Thebes both northward and southward, but it was left to Mentuhotep to complete the reunification process, sometime after 2047 BC. Mentuhotep ruled for more than 50 years, and despite occasional rebellions, he maintained stability and control over the whole kingdom. He replaced some nomarchs and limited the power of the nomes, which was still considerable. Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary temple at Dayr al Bahrì incorporated both traditional and regional elements; the tomb was separate from the temple, and there was no pyramid.
The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I, was peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and, unlike Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of national unity. Nevertheless, the important Theban god Amon was given prominence over other deities. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nomes, rebuilt the bureaucracy, and educated a staff of scribes and administrators. The literature was predominantly propaganda designed to reinforce the image of the king as a “good shepherd” rather than as an inaccessible god. During the last ten years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with his son as co-regent. “The Story of Sinuhe,” a literary work of the period, implies that the king was assassinated.
Amenemhet's successors continued his programs. His son, Sesostris I, who reigned 1962-1928 BC, built fortresses throughout Nubia and established trade with foreign lands. He sent governors to Palestine and Syria and campaigned against the Libyans in the west. Sesostris II, who reigned 1895-1878 BC, began land reclamation in Al Fayyum. His successor, Sesostris III, who reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a canal dug at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a standing army (which he used in his campaign against the Nubians), and built new forts on the southern frontier. He divided the administration into three powerful geographic units, each controlled by an official under the vizier, and he no longer recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet III continued the policies of his predecessors and extended the land reform.
A vigorous renaissance of culture took place under the Theban kings. The architecture, art, and jewelry of the period reveal an extraordinary delicacy of design, and the time was considered the golden age of Egyptian literature.
Second Intermediate Period
The rulers of the 13th Dynasty—some 50 or more in about 120 years—were weaker than their predecessors, although they were still able to control Nubia and the administration of the central government. During the latter part of their rule, however, their power was challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which won control over the delta, but also by the Hyksos, who invaded from western Asia. By the 13th Dynasty there was a large Hyksos population in northern Egypt. As the central government entered a period of decline, their presence made possible an influx of people from coastal side of Phoenicia and Palestine and the establishment of a Hyksos dynasty. This marks the beginning of the Second Intermediate period, a time of turmoil and disunity that lasted for some 214 years. The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, maintaining control over the middle and northern parts of the country. At the same time, the 16th Dynasty also existed in the delta and Middle Egypt, but it may have been subservient to the Hyksos. More independence was exerted in the south by a third contemporaneous power, the Theban 17th Dynasty, which ruled over the territory between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who reigned about 1576-1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully, but it was his brother, Ahmose who finally subdued them, reuniting Egypt.
The New Kingdom
With the unification of the land and the founding of the 18th Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC) began. Ahmose re-established the borders, goals, and bureaucracy of the Middle Kingdom and revived its land-reclamation program. He maintained the balance of power between the nomarchs and himself with the support of the military, who were accordingly rewarded. The importance of women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high titles and position of the royal wives and mothers.
The 18th Dynasty Kings
Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full control over his administration—he was co-regent for five years—he began to extend Egypt's boundaries in Nubia and Palestine. A major builder at Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike his predecessors, separated his tomb from his mortuary temple; he began the custom of hiding his final resting place, then he continued the advances of the new Imperial Age and emphasized the preeminence of the god Amon. His tomb was the first in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife, succeeded him, marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his claim to the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of his predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir, Thutmose III, was still a child, and so Hatshepsut governed as a regent. Within a year, she had herself crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son ruled jointly. When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon Hatshepsut's death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and Palestine, which had broken away under joint rule, and then continued to expand his empire. His annals in the temple at Karnak chronicle many of his campaigns. Nearly 20 years after Hatshepsut's death, he ordered the obliteration of her name and images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC, and Thutmose IV tried to maintain the Asian conquests in the face of growing threats from the Mitanni and Hittite states, but they found it necessary to use negotiations as well as force.
Amenhotep III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades, 1386-1349 BC, and art and architecture flourished during his reign. He maintained the balance of power among Egypt's neighbors by diplomacy. His son and successor, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was a religious reformer who fought the power of the Amon priesthood. Akhenaton abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see Tall al ‘Amarana , which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of the sun on which his monotheistic religion centered. The religious revolution was abandoned toward the end of his reign, however, and his son-in-law, Tutankhamen, returned the capital to Thebes. Tutankhamen is known today chiefly for his richly furnished tomb, which was found nearly intact in the Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922. The 18th Dynasty ended with Horemheb, who reigned 1321-1293 BC.
The Ramesside Period
The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned 1293-1291 BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and commander of the army. Reigning only two years, he was succeeded by his son, Seti I, who reigned 1291-1279 BC; he led campaigns against Syria, Palestine, the Libyans, and the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary at Abydos. Like his father, he favored the delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (now Qantir). One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded him and reigned for nearly 67 years. He was responsible for much construction at Luxor and Karnak, and he built the Ramesseum (his funerary temple at Thebes), the rock-cut temples at Abu Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and Memphis. After campaigns against the Hittites, Ramses made a treaty with them and married a Hittite princess. His son Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC, defeated the Sea Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the Middle East in the 13th century BC, and records tell of his desolating Israel. Later rulers had to contend with constant uprisings by subject peoples of the empire.
The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III, had his military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary complex at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death the New Kingdom declined, chiefly because of the rising power of the priesthood of Amon and the army. One high priest and military commander even had himself depicted in royal regalia.
Third Intermediate Period
The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the north, vied with a line of high priests, to whom they appear to be related, from Thebes, in the south. The rulers of the 21st Dynasty may have been partially Libyan in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty began with Libyan chieftains as kings. As the Libyans' rule deteriorated, several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact the next two dynasties, the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous with part of the 22nd Dynasty, just as the 25th (Kushite) Dynasty effectively controlled much of Egypt during the latter years of the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.
Late Period
The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The Cushites ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by the Assyrians in 671 BC. Native rule was reestablished early in the 26th Dynasty by Psamtik I. A resurgence of cultural achievement, reminiscent of earlier epochs, reached its height in the 26th Dynasty. When the last Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II in 525 BC, the country entered a period of Persian domination under the 27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under the 28th and 29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last one of native rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not listed in Manetho's chronology, represented the second Persian domination.
The Hellenistic and Roman Periods
The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the Great in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander appointed Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt, and his Macedonian general, known later as Ptolemy I, to govern the country. Although two Egyptian governors were named as well, power was clearly in the hands of Ptolemy, who in a few years took absolute control of the country.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty
Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of Alexander's empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied much of Ptolemy's time, but in 305 BC he assumed the royal title and founded the dynasty that bears his name (see Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great powers of the Hellenistic world, and at various times it extended its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands.
Partly because native Egyptian rulers had a reduced role in affairs of state during the Ptolemaic regime, they periodically demonstrated their dissatisfaction by open revolts, all of which were, however, quickly suppressed. In the reign of Ptolemy VI, Egypt became a protectorate under Antiochus IV of Syria, who successfully invaded the country in 169 BC. The Romans, however, forced Antiochus to give up the country, which was then divided between Ptolemy VI and his younger brother, Ptolemy VIII; the latter took full control upon the death of his brother in 145 BC.
The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth and status of Egypt while continually losing territory to the Romans. Cleopatra VII was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic line. In an attempt to maintain Egyptian power she aligned herself with Julius Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, but these moves only postponed the end. After her forces were defeated by Roman legions under Octavian (later Emperor Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.
Roman and Byzantine Rule
For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans controlled Egypt (except for a short time in the 3rd century AD, when it came under the power of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra). They treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and profit and were dependent on its supply of grain to feed their multitudes. Roman Egypt was governed by a prefect, whose duties as commander of the army and official judge were similar to those of the pharaohs of the past. The office, therefore, was one with which the native population was familiar. Because of the immense power of the prefects, however, their functions were eventually divided under Emperor Justinian, who in the 6th century AD put the army under a separate commander, directly responsible to him.
Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its southern boundary at Aswan was only rarely attacked by the Ethiopians. Egypt's population had become Hellenized under the Ptolemies, and it included large minorities of Greeks and Jews, as well as other peoples from Asia Minor. The mixture of the cultures did not lead to a homogeneous society, and civil strife was frequent. In 212, however, Emperor Caracalla granted the entire population citizenship in the Roman Empire.
Alexandria, the port city on the Mediterranean founded by Alexander the Great, remained the capital as it had been under the Ptolemies. One of the great metropolises of the Roman Empire, it was the center of a thriving commerce between India and Arabia and the Mediterranean countries. It was the home of the great Alexandrian library and museum and had a population of some 300,000 (excluding slaves).
Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not only because of its annual harvest of grain but also for its glass, metal, and other manufactured products. In addition, the trade brought in spices, perfumes, precious stones, and rare metals from the Red Sea ports. Once part of the empire, Egypt was subject to a variety of taxes as well.
In order to control the people and placate the powerful priesthood, the Roman emperors protected the ancient religion, completed or embellished temples begun under the Ptolemies, and had their own names inscribed on them as pharaohs; the cartouches of several can be found at Isna, Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae. The Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis spread throughout the ancient world. Egypt was also an important center of early Christendom and the first one of Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or Monophysite church separated from mainstream Christianity in the 5th century.
During the 7th century the power of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire was challenged by the Sassanids of Persia, who invaded Egypt in 616. They were expelled again in 628, but soon after, in 642, the country fell to the Arabs, who brought with them a new religion, Islam, and began a new chapter of Egyptian history.
Egypt Under the the Byzantinans:
Alienated by the religious intolerance and heavy taxation of the Byzantine government, the Coptic Egyptians offered little resistance to their Arab conquerors. A treaty was subsequently signed, by which the Egyptians agreed to pay a poll tax (jizyah) in return for an Arab promise to respect the religious practices, lives, and property of the Copts. Besides the poll tax, the male population, estimated at between 6 and 8 million, paid the kharaj, a tax levied on agricultural land.
Local Government
No changes in the administration were made by the Arabs, who adopted the Byzantine decentralized system of provincial governors reporting to a chief governor, resident in the capital, Alexandria. They did, however, later move the capital to a new, more central location, called Al Fustat (“the tent”), a few miles south of present-day Cairo.
For the next two centuries Egypt was ruled by governors appointed by the caliph, the leader of the Muslim community. In this system, mild and generous rule alternated with severity and religious oppression, depending on the character of the governor appointed, his relationship with the population, and his financial needs. Immigration of Arab tribes and the replacement of the Coptic language by Arabic in all public documents began a slow process of Arabization that was eventually to turn Coptic-speaking Christian Egypt into a largely Muslim and wholly Arabic-speaking country. Coptic became a liturgical language.
Internal Strife
Under the Abbasid caliphs (750-868), governors were appointed for brief periods, and Egypt was plagued by a series of insurrections arising from conflicts between the different sects of Muslims who had settled there: the Sunni, or orthodox majority, and the minority Shia sect. On several occasions the Copts also rose to protest excessive taxation. Such uprisings were met with repression and persecution by the government. Internal conditions became so bad in the late 8th century that a group of new immigrants from Andalusia allied themselves with an Arab tribe and seized Alexandria, holding it until an army arrived from Baghdad and exiled them to Crete. Insurrections continued to break out among the Arabs, who even defeated a governor and burned his baggage. Rebellions by the Copts continued until Caliph Abdullah al-Mamun led a Turkish army to put down the revolts in 832. This was a period of ruthless and unscrupulous governors, who abused the population and extorted money from them. The only bulwark against such oppression lay in the chief qadi, the country's leading Muslim magistrate, who maintained the sacred law—the Sharia—in the face of abuse of power, and helped ease the rapacity of the governors.
Despite a predominantly rural population, commercial centers flourished, and Al Fustat grew to become a trading metropolis.From 856 onward Egypt was given as an iqta, a form of fief, to the Turkish military oligarchy that dominated the caliphate in Baghdad. In 868 Ahmad ibn Tulun, a 33-year-old Turk, was sent to the country as governor. A man of ability and education, Tulun ruled wisely and well, but he also turned Egypt into an autonomous province, linked with the Abbasids only by the yearly payment of a small tribute. Tulun built a new city, Al Qita‘ì (“the Wards”), north of Al Fustat. Under his benevolent rule Egypt prospered and expanded to annex Syria. Tulun's dynasty (the Tulunids) ruled for 37 years over an empire that included Egypt, Palestine, and Syria.
The Fatimid
After the last rule by the Tulunids, the country fell into a state of anarchy. Its weak and defenseless condition made it an easy prey for the Fatimids, a Shiite dynasty that in 909, rejecting the authority of the Abbasids, had proclaimed their own caliphate in Tunisia and by the mid-10th century controlled most of North Africa. In 969 they invaded and conquered Egypt and subsequently founded a new city, Cairo, north of Al Fustat, making it their capital. See Caliphate.
Al Fustat, however, remained the commercial hub of the country under the Fatimids. It was an impressive, multistoried urban center with an excellent underground sewage system. An Iranian traveler, Nasir-i-Khosrau, who visited Egypt in 1046, marveled at the rich markets and the security of the land. Egypt was then enjoying a period of tranquillity and prosperity.
The Fatimids, although Shiites in their beliefs, for the most part coexisted peacefully with the predominantly Sunni population. They founded the oldest university in the world, Al Azhar, and Cairo became a great intellectual center.
The Ayyubids:
Tranquillity disappeared with later Fatimid rulers, who could not control their unruly regiments of Berber and Sudanese soldiers. A low Nile caused serious famine in 1065. New danger appeared with the First Crusade from western Europe, which established Christian control over Syria and Palestine in the late 1090s. The Fatimid caliphs, by now pawns in the hands of their generals, appealed to Nur ad-Din of Halab (Aleppo), and he sent an army to help them against the Crusaders in 1168. Saladin, one of Nur ad-Din's generals, was installed as vizier. In 1171 he abolished the Fatimid caliphate, founding the Ayyubid dynasty and restoring Sunni rule to Egypt. Saladin reconquered most of Syria and Palestine from the Crusaders and became the most powerful Middle Eastern ruler of this time. His nephew, Sultan al-Kamil, who reigned 1218-1238, successfully defended Egypt against a Christian attack in 1218-1221, but after his death Ayyubid power declined. The Ninth Crusade, led by Louis IX of France, was repelled in 1249, with the aid of the Mamelukes, slave troops in Ayyubid service. The following year the Mamelukes overthrew the Ayyubids and established their own ruling house.
The Mamelukes
The first Mameluke dynasty, the Bahri, held power as sultans of Egypt until 1382. Hereditary succession was frequently disregarded and the throne usurped by the more powerful emirs (military commanders). Many among them were remarkable rulers, such as Baybars I, who halted the Mongol advance into Syria and Egypt in 1260. Two other Mongol invasions were repelled by the Mamelukes, who also expelled the Crusaders from the region and captured ‘Akko, their last stronghold in Palestine, in 1291. In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the Mameluke realm extended north to the borders of Asia Minor.
The age of the Mamelukes was one of extraordinary brilliance in the arts. It was also an age of commercial expansion; Egypt's spice traders, the Karimi, were merchant princes who vied with the emirs in patronizing the arts.
After the death of the last great Bahri sultan, al-Nasir, in 1341, Egypt lapsed into decline. His descendants were mere figureheads who allowed real power to remain in the hands of the emirs. In 1348 the plague known as the Black Death swept over the land, radically reducing the population.
The second dynasty of Mameluke sultans, the Burjis, was of Circassian origin and ruled from 1382 to 1517. Most of the Burji rulers exercised little real authority; their dynasty was marked by continual power struggles among the Mameluke elite. In the midst of rebellion and civil strife, the Mamelukes continued to hold Egypt and Syria by virtue of their ability to repel invasions. By the early 16th century, however, they were threatened by the growing power of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1517 the Ottoman Sultan Selim I invaded Egypt and ruled it.
The Ottoman
Although the real hold of the Ottoman Turks over Egypt was to last only until the 17th century, the country remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire until 1915. Rather than exterminate the Mamelukes, the Ottomans used them in their administration. They established a governor and settled six ocaks (regiments) in Egypt as a garrison. In time the roman ocaks intermarried with the native people, playing an important role in the country's economic and political life. Rural areas were treated as crown lands, parceled into plots called iqta, the produce of which went to the Ottoman elite.
The Mameluke come back:
As time went on, an inflationary trend that historians have noted in 16th-century Europe had repercussions in Egypt as well. Rising prices led to rivalry among the ocaks over the country's wealth. This weakened their control, and the Mamelukes stepped into the breach. By the mid-17th century the Mameluke emirs, or beys, had established their supremacy. Land taxes were farmed out among them, and the urban guilds, which were closely allied with the roman ocaks, were heavily taxed as a means of diminishing Ottoman influence and of increasing revenue. The Ottomans acquiesced in the system so long as the tribute was regularly paid.
The period from the 16th to the mid-18th century was an age of commercial prosperity when Egypt, at the crossroads of several commercial routes, was the center of a flourishing intermediary trade in coffee, textiles, and spices.
The Ottoman governor quickly became a puppet, first in the hands of the regiments, which held the military power, and then in the hands of the Mamelukes, who came to control the ocaks. The leading Mameluke bey, called the Shaikh al-Balad (“chief of the city”), thus became recognized as the real ruler of the land. The beys imposed higher taxes to finance their military expeditions in Syria and Arabia. Although defeated in Syria by the Ottomans, who once more sought to reinforce their authority, the Mamelukes dominated Egypt until 1798. The last 30 years of the 18th century were marked by plagues and famine that reduced the population to a bare 4 million.
The Time of Muhammad Ali:
The French occupation of Egypt in 1798, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, was a brief interlude, for the French never acquired full dominion or control. The grain-producing regions of Upper Egypt remained in Mameluke hands. Napoleon's invasion was too short-lived to have any lasting impact, but it marked the beginning of a renewed European interest in Egypt. In 1801 an Anglo-Ottoman force expelled the French. For the next few years, struggles between Mamelukes and Ottomans for mastery ruined the country until Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman general of Albanian origin, seized power with the cooperation of the local population. In 1805 the Ottoman sultan declared him the governor of Egypt.
Muhammad Ali, a man of genius, slowly and methodically destroyed or bought off all his opponents until he became the only source of power in the country. To gain control of all the trade routes into Egypt, he embarked on wars of expansion. He first conquered Al Hijaz (the Hejaz, now in Saudi Arabia) in 1819 and Sudan from 1820 to 1822; by 1824 he was ready to help the Ottoman sultan put down an insurrection in Greece. The European powers, however, intervened to halt Egyptian advances in Greece, and Muhammad Ali was forced to withdraw his army.
At home, Muhammad Ali encouraged the production of cotton to supply the textile mills of Europe, and he used the profits to finance industrial projects. He established a monopoly over all commodities and imposed trade barriers to nurture industry. He sent Egyptians abroad for technical education and hired experts from Europe to train his army and build his manufacturing industries (which, however, were never as successful as he hoped they would be).
In 1831 Muhammad Ali invaded Syria, thereby coming into conflict with his Turkish overlord. The Egyptians defeated the Ottoman armies, and by 1833 they were threatening the Turkish capital, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). Once again, Russia, Britain, and France intervened, this time to protect the sultan. Muhammad Ali's forces withdrew, but he was left in control of Syria and Crete.
Egyptian expansion and control over trade routes conflicted with Britain's growing interest in the Middle East as a market for its burgeoning industrial production. The threat to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire also disturbed Britain and roused fears of Russian encroachment in the Mediterranean. For these reasons the British opposed Egypt, and when Muhammad Ali again rebelled against the sultan in 1839, they stepped in for the third time to make him back down. He was offered hereditary possession of Egypt, but had to give up his other conquests and remain an Ottoman vassal.
Bankruptcy and Foreign influence
After the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, Egypt came increasingly under European influence. His son, Said Pasha, made some attempt to modernize the government, but left a huge debt when he died. His successor, Ismail , increased the national debt by borrowing lavishly from European bankers to develop the country and pay for the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869. These spendthrift rulers drove the country into bankruptcy and ultimately into the control of their British and French creditors. In 1876 an Anglo-French commission took charge of Egypt's finances, and in 1879 the sultan deposed Ismail in favor of his son Tawfik Pasha. Army officers, disgusted by the government's weakness, then led a rebellion to end foreign control. Tawfik appealed to the British for help, and they occupied Egypt in 1882.
Egypt Under the British:
British interest in Egypt stemmed from the Suez Canal as the short route to India. Promises to evacuate the country once order had been restored were broken, and the British army remained in occupation until 1954. Although Tawfik remained on the throne as a figurehead prince, the British consul general was the real ruler of the country. The first and most important consul general was Sir Evelyn Baring (known after 1892 as Lord Cromer).
A nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kamil, a European-educated lawyer, was backed by Tawfik's successor, Abbas II, during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Kamil agitated for self-government and an end to the British occupation but was ignored by British authorities.In this period Egyptian agriculture was so completely dominated by cotton grown to feed the textile mills of Lancashire, England, that grain had to be imported to feed the rural population. Irrigation projects were carried out to increase the arable land, and in due course the entire debt to Britain was paid.British promises to evacuate diminished as Egypt and the Suez Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy. The illegal occupation was, in fact, internationally sanctioned in 1904, when France recognized British rights in Egypt in return for British acknowledgment of French rights in Morocco.
Protectorate Declared:
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought nationalist activities in Egypt to an end. When Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany, Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed Abbas II in favor of his uncle, Hussein Kamil, who was given the title of sultan. Legal ties between Egypt and Turkey were finally severed, and Britain promised Egypt some changes in government once the war was over.
The war years resulted in great hardship for Egyptian peasants, the fellahin, who were conscripted to dig ditches and whose livestock was confiscated by the army. Inflation was rampant. These factors were responsible for increasing resentment against the British and set the stage for the violent upheaval that was to come after World War I ended in 1918.
llied promises that former Ottoman territories would be allowed self-determination raised hopes in Egypt of independence once the war was over. A new nationalist movement, the Wafd (“delegation”), was formed in 1918 to plan for the country's future. Hopes were dashed when Britain refused to consider Egyptian needs, and Saad Zaghlul, the leader of the Wafd, was exiled. The country erupted in violent revolt, and Britain was forced to reconsider its decision. Zaghlul was released, but his efforts to get a hearing at the Paris Peace Conference were thwarted by the British. Violence continued until 1922, when Britain unilaterally declared Egypt an independent monarchy under Hussein's successor, who became king as Fuad I. The British, however, reserved the right to intervene in Egyptian affairs if their interests were threatened, thereby robbing Egypt of any real independence and allowing British control to continue unabated.
The new constitution of 1924 set up a bicameral legislature but, under pressure from the British and Fuad, gave the latter the right to nominate the premier and to suspend Parliament. The result was a tripartite struggle for mastery over Egypt involving the king, the British ambassador, and the Wafd, which was the only grass-roots party. One government after another fell after trying unsuccessfully to extract concessions from the British. In 1936, under pressures caused by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, an Anglo-Egyptian treaty was finally signed, but it continued the physical occupation of Egypt by the British army and the involvement of the British army in internal affairs.
The Coup of 1952
World War II (1939-1945) suspended further political bargaining. The war years brought inflation, interparty strife, and disillusion with the Wafd. Fundamentalist religious organizations, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, and Communist groups developed.In 1948 Egypt and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. Blaming the government for its loss, the army turned against King Faruk, Fuad's son, who showed no aptitude for government and a blatant disregard for public well-being and morality. In 1952 a group of army officers carried out a successful coup d'etat that ousted the king and in 1953 declared Egypt a republic.
Egypt as a republic :
The first president of the republic, General Muhammad Naguib, was a figurehead. The real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser of the Revolutionary Command Council, the officers who had plotted the revolution. In April 1954 Nasser became prime minister. In November of that year, Naguib was removed from power, and Nasser assumed complete executive authority. In July 1956 Nasser was officially elected president.
At first Nasser followed a pro-Western policy and successfully negotiated the evacuation of British forces from Egypt in 1954. Soon he turned to a policy of neutrality and solidarity with other African and Asian nations and became an advocate of Arab unity.
The Suez Crisis
In efforts to acquire armaments, which the Western world would not supply to Egypt, Nasser turned to the Eastern bloc. In retaliation, the World Bank turned down Egypt's request for a loan to finance the Aswan High Dam project. Nasser therefore nationalized the Suez Canal and sought to use its revenues to finance the dam. Angered by that move, Britain and France, the main stockholders in the canal, joined with Israel in attacking Egypt in 1956. Pressure from the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) forced the three countries to evacuate Egyptian territory, and United Nations (UN) forces were placed as a buffer between Egypt and Israel.
Pursuing his dream of Arab unity, Nasser in 1958 effected a union between Egypt and Syria under the name of the United Arab Republic. Although it lasted only three years before the Syrians rebelled and reaffirmed their independence, Egypt retained the official name of the republic for many years afterward.
Arab Socialism
Within Egypt the Nasser regime suppressed political opposition and established a one-party system as a means of reforming political life. A series of decrees limited land ownership and undermined the authority of the landowning elite. In 1961 foreign capital invested in Egypt was nationalized, as were public utilities and local industries, all of which became part of the public sector. This new order, which Nasser called Arab Socialism, aimed at greater social equality and economic growth. In 1962 a national charter was drawn up, and the official National Union Party was renamed the Arab Socialist Union. Women, who had been emancipated earlier, were elected to the union, as were workers. The first woman cabinet minister was appointed.
Wars of the 1960s
In 1962 Egypt became embroiled in a civil war in Yemen, backing a republican movement against monarchist forces. This venture cost lives and money and left the country weakened. In 1967 Nasser, continuing the Arab struggle against Israel, closed the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping and requested that the UN forces be withdrawn from the border. The Israelis, believing that Nasser was preparing for war, struck first, attacking and destroying Egyptian airfields and positions in the Sinai. Israeli forces advanced until they reached the right bank of the Suez Canal. This Six-Day War left Israel in possession of the whole Sinai Peninsula. The UN Security Council called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories. Israel Did decline and continued to occupy the Sinai. When negotiations seemed to be leading nowhere, Nasser turned to the USSR, which rearmed Egypt in return for a naval base.Nasser died suddenly in 1970. Problems of succession to the post of president were settled when Vice President Anwar El-Sadat, a long-time colleague of Nasser, was chosen to succeed him.
The Sadat Regime
Sadat was elected by opposing political factions as a compromise candidate, on the assumption that he could be manipulated. The new president, however, outwitted his would-be puppeteers and, with the support of the army, put them under arrest. He freed political prisoners who had been incarcerated by Nasser for opposing his policies, and called for a regime of economic and political liberalization, especially for the press, which Nasser had strictly controlled.
The 6th of october war :
clashes between Egypt and Israel had continued after 1969, and this “war of attrition” had resulted in high Egyptian casualties and burdensome military expenditures. Sadat tried to find a way out of that impress negotiation. successfully he secretly planned a for a war to free the occupied sinai from Israel. He first repaired his fences with the Arab states, especially Saudi Arabia, which financed arms purchases from the Soviet Union. Then, on October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur and during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan(10th of Ramadan), Egypt launched an air and artillery counterattack across the Suez Canal. Within hours, thousands of Egyptian soldiers had successfully crossed into the Sinai. Protected by a missile umbrella that destroyed Israeli aircrafts, they overran and captured the string of Israeli fortifications known as the Bar-Lev line. Israel was caught unprepared. It was a total victory . By the middle of the month, however, with immidate aid from the united states ,it had regained the initiative and was able to encircle Egyptian units on the outskirts of Suez. The United Nations then imposed a cease-fire, and an armistice line patrolled by UN forces was eventually established between the Egyptian and the Israeli armies.
peace treaty with Isreal
After the war Sadat was ready for negotiations. In 1974 and 1975 Egypt and Israel concluded agreements—again mediated by Kissinger—providing disengagement on the Sinai front. In June 1975 Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, permitting passage to ships carrying Israeli cargoes. Israel withdrew beyond the strategic passes and from some of the oil fields in the Sinai.Meanwhile, Egypt's economic position was growing rapidly worse; by early 1976 the country's debt to the USSR was estimated at $4 billion. The following year, surprising all, Sadat asked the Soviet military advisers to leave the country and threw his lot in with the United States, declaring it held the key to peace in the Middle East. Even more surprising, on November 19, 1977, Sadat flew to Israel and addressed the Knesset (parliament) . The historic journey was followed by further negotiations under U.S. auspices. At a tripartite conference with U.S. president Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland, in September 1978, Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin agreed on a framework for an Israeli-Egyptian settlement. A peace treaty between the two nations, based on the Camp David accords, was signed in Washington, D.C., on March 26, 1979.
Sadat regime :
The rest of the Arab world denounced Egypt for making a separate peace with Israel, and some of the more “hard-line” Arab leaders branded Sadat a traitor to the Arab cause. The Sinai was gradually restored to Egypt, but later Egyptian-Israeli talks on a settlement of the Palestinian issue made little progress. Egypt was expelled from the Arab League in 1979 because of the peace treaty, and the league's headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis, Tunisia. In 1989 Egypt was readmitted to the league; the headquarters were moved back to Cairo the following year.By 1981 Sadat was meeting increasing opposition within Egypt itself, especially from Muslim fundamentalists, who opposed any accommodation with Israel. Sadat responded with a crackdown, arresting and jailing hundreds of his opponents, and placing restrictions on the press. In such an atmosphere he was assassinated by religious fanatics within his own army on October 6, 1981, during a military parade commemorating the Yom Kippur War.Sadat was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak. While adhering to the Camp David accords, Mubarak sought political liberalization within Egypt as well as improved relations with other Arab states. Israel completed its withdrawal from the Sinai on April 25, 1982. president Mubarak applied and embraced democracy and still doing his best to enhance the life of the Egyptians.
The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many regard as one of the fountainheads of Western culture, cannot be established with certainty. Archaeological evidence suggests that early dwellers in the Nile Valley were influenced by cultures of the Near East, but the degree of this influence is yet to be determined. Describing the development of Egyptian civilization, like attempts to identify its intellectual foundations, is largely a process of conjecture based on archaeological discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and monuments, many of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have provided priceless data.
The framework for the study of the Dynastic period of Egyptian history, between the 1st dynasty and the Ptolemaic period, relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a Ptolemaic priest of the 3rd century BC, who organized the country's rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families. General agreement exists on the division of Egyptian history, up to the conquest of Alexander the Great, into Old, Middle, and New kingdoms with intermediate periods, followed by the late and Ptolemaic periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of increasingly sophisticated dating techniques.
Prehistory
Some 60,000 years ago the Nile River began its yearly inundation of the land along its banks, leaving behind rich alluvial soil. Areas close to the floodplain became attractive as a source of food and water. In time, climatic changes, including periods of aridity, further served to confine human habitation to the Nile Valley, although this was not always true. From the Chalcolithic period (the Copper age, beginning about 4000 BC) into the early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently used an extended part of the land.
In the 7th millennium BC, Egypt was environmentally hospitable, and evidence of settlements from that time has been found in the low desert areas of southern, or Upper, Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered at Nubian sites in modern Sudan. Enough pottery has been found in Upper Egyptian tombs from the 4th millennium BC (in the Predynastic period) to establish a relative dating sequence. The Predynastic period, which ends with the unification of Egypt under one king, is generally subdivided into three parts, each of which refers to the site at which its archaeological materials were found: Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II and III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded datable archaeological material of apparent cultural continuity but no long-term sequences such as those found in the south.
Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period
Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late Gerzean period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political force that was to become the consolidating element in the first united kingdom of ancient Egypt. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing dates from this period; soon the names of early rulers began to appear on monuments. This period began with a 0 Dynasty, which had as many as 13 rulers, ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC), followed by the 1st and 2nd dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with at least 17 kings. Some of the earliest massive mortuary structures (predecessors of the pyramids) were built at Abydos, and elsewhere during the 1st and 2nd dynasties.
The Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five centuries of rule by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. The capital was in the north, at Memphis, and the ruling monarchs held absolute power over a strongly unified government. Religion played an important role; in fact, the government had evolved into a theocracy, wherein the pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both absolute monarchs and, also gods on earth.
The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and its second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about 2737-2717 BC, emphasized national unity by balancing northern and southern motifs in his mortuary buildings at Sakkara . His architect, Imhotep, used stone blocks rather than traditional mud bricks in the complex there, thus creating the first monumental structure of stone; its central element, the Step Pyramid, was Zoser's tomb. In order to deal with affairs of state and to administer construction projects, the king began to develop an effective bureaucracy. In general, the 3rd Dynasty marked the beginning of a golden age of cultural freshness and vigor.
The 4th Dynasty began with King senfru , whose building projects included the first true pyramid at Dahshor (south of sakkara ). Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom extensive documents remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya and was active in the Sinai. Promoting commerce and mining, he brought prosperity to the kingdom. Snefru was succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops), who built the Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of his reign, that monument not only attests to his power but also indicates the administrative skills the bureaucracy had gained. Khufu's son Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-2603 BC, introduced the solar element (Ra, or Re) in the royal titular and the religion. Khafre (or Chephren), another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother to the throne and built his mortuary complex at Giza. The remaining rulers of the dynasty included Menkaure, or Mycerinus, who reigned about 2578-2553 BC; he is known primarily for the smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza.
Under the 4th Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a peak in its development, and this high level was generally maintained in the 5th and 6th dynasties. The splendour of the engineering feats of the pyramids was approximated in every other field of endeavour, including architecture, sculpture, painting, navigation, the industrial arts and sciences, and astronomy; Memphite astronomers first created a solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Old Kingdom physicians also displayed a remarkable knowledge of physiology, surgery, the circulatory system of the body, and antiseptics.
Beginning of Decline:
Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with extensive foreign trade and military incursions into Asia, signs of decreasing royal authority became apparent in the swelling of the bureaucracy and the enhanced power of no royal administrators. The last king of the dynasty, Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407 BC, was buried at sakkara , with a body of religious spells, called Pyramid Texts, carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber. Such texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th Dynasty. Several autobiographical inscriptions of officials under the 6th Dynasty indicate the decreasing status of the monarchy; records even indicate a conspiracy against King Pepi I, who reigned about 2395-2360 BC, in which the ruler's wife was involved. It is believed that during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned about 2350-2260 BC, power may have been in the hands of his vizier (chief minister). Central authority over the economy was also diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes. The Nomes (districts) were rapidly becoming individually powerful, as the monarchs—governors of the districts—were beginning to remain in place rather than being periodically transferred to different Nomes.
First Intermediate Period
The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First Intermediate period. As a consequence of internal strife, the reigns of this and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are rather obscure. It is clear, however, that both ruled from Memphis and lasted a total of only 25 years. By this time the powerful nomarchs were in effective control of their districts, and factions in the south and north vied for power. Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and 10th dynasties, the nomarchs near Heracleopolis controlled their area and extended their power north to Memphis (and even into the delta) and south to Asyut (Lycopolis). The rival southern nomarchs at Thebes established the 11th Dynasty, controlling the area from Abydos to Elephantine, near Syene (present-day Aswan). The early part of this dynasty, the first of the Middle Kingdom, overlapped the last part of the 10th.
The Middle Kingdom:
Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no longer effective, and regional concerns were openly championed. Egyptian art became more provincial, and no massive mortuary complexes were built. The religion was also democratized, as commoners claimed prerogatives previously reserved for royalty alone. They could, for instance, use spells derived from the royal Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own coffins or tombs.
Reunification
Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally dated to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly begins with the reunification of the land by Mentuhotep II, who reigned 2061-2010 BC. The early rulers of the dynasty attempted to extend their control from Thebes both northward and southward, but it was left to Mentuhotep to complete the reunification process, sometime after 2047 BC. Mentuhotep ruled for more than 50 years, and despite occasional rebellions, he maintained stability and control over the whole kingdom. He replaced some nomarchs and limited the power of the nomes, which was still considerable. Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary temple at Dayr al Bahrì incorporated both traditional and regional elements; the tomb was separate from the temple, and there was no pyramid.
The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I, was peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and, unlike Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of national unity. Nevertheless, the important Theban god Amon was given prominence over other deities. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nomes, rebuilt the bureaucracy, and educated a staff of scribes and administrators. The literature was predominantly propaganda designed to reinforce the image of the king as a “good shepherd” rather than as an inaccessible god. During the last ten years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with his son as co-regent. “The Story of Sinuhe,” a literary work of the period, implies that the king was assassinated.
Amenemhet's successors continued his programs. His son, Sesostris I, who reigned 1962-1928 BC, built fortresses throughout Nubia and established trade with foreign lands. He sent governors to Palestine and Syria and campaigned against the Libyans in the west. Sesostris II, who reigned 1895-1878 BC, began land reclamation in Al Fayyum. His successor, Sesostris III, who reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a canal dug at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a standing army (which he used in his campaign against the Nubians), and built new forts on the southern frontier. He divided the administration into three powerful geographic units, each controlled by an official under the vizier, and he no longer recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet III continued the policies of his predecessors and extended the land reform.
A vigorous renaissance of culture took place under the Theban kings. The architecture, art, and jewelry of the period reveal an extraordinary delicacy of design, and the time was considered the golden age of Egyptian literature.
Second Intermediate Period
The rulers of the 13th Dynasty—some 50 or more in about 120 years—were weaker than their predecessors, although they were still able to control Nubia and the administration of the central government. During the latter part of their rule, however, their power was challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which won control over the delta, but also by the Hyksos, who invaded from western Asia. By the 13th Dynasty there was a large Hyksos population in northern Egypt. As the central government entered a period of decline, their presence made possible an influx of people from coastal side of Phoenicia and Palestine and the establishment of a Hyksos dynasty. This marks the beginning of the Second Intermediate period, a time of turmoil and disunity that lasted for some 214 years. The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, maintaining control over the middle and northern parts of the country. At the same time, the 16th Dynasty also existed in the delta and Middle Egypt, but it may have been subservient to the Hyksos. More independence was exerted in the south by a third contemporaneous power, the Theban 17th Dynasty, which ruled over the territory between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who reigned about 1576-1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully, but it was his brother, Ahmose who finally subdued them, reuniting Egypt.
The New Kingdom
With the unification of the land and the founding of the 18th Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC) began. Ahmose re-established the borders, goals, and bureaucracy of the Middle Kingdom and revived its land-reclamation program. He maintained the balance of power between the nomarchs and himself with the support of the military, who were accordingly rewarded. The importance of women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high titles and position of the royal wives and mothers.
The 18th Dynasty Kings
Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full control over his administration—he was co-regent for five years—he began to extend Egypt's boundaries in Nubia and Palestine. A major builder at Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike his predecessors, separated his tomb from his mortuary temple; he began the custom of hiding his final resting place, then he continued the advances of the new Imperial Age and emphasized the preeminence of the god Amon. His tomb was the first in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife, succeeded him, marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his claim to the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of his predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir, Thutmose III, was still a child, and so Hatshepsut governed as a regent. Within a year, she had herself crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son ruled jointly. When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon Hatshepsut's death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and Palestine, which had broken away under joint rule, and then continued to expand his empire. His annals in the temple at Karnak chronicle many of his campaigns. Nearly 20 years after Hatshepsut's death, he ordered the obliteration of her name and images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC, and Thutmose IV tried to maintain the Asian conquests in the face of growing threats from the Mitanni and Hittite states, but they found it necessary to use negotiations as well as force.
Amenhotep III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades, 1386-1349 BC, and art and architecture flourished during his reign. He maintained the balance of power among Egypt's neighbors by diplomacy. His son and successor, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was a religious reformer who fought the power of the Amon priesthood. Akhenaton abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see Tall al ‘Amarana , which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of the sun on which his monotheistic religion centered. The religious revolution was abandoned toward the end of his reign, however, and his son-in-law, Tutankhamen, returned the capital to Thebes. Tutankhamen is known today chiefly for his richly furnished tomb, which was found nearly intact in the Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922. The 18th Dynasty ended with Horemheb, who reigned 1321-1293 BC.
The Ramesside Period
The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned 1293-1291 BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and commander of the army. Reigning only two years, he was succeeded by his son, Seti I, who reigned 1291-1279 BC; he led campaigns against Syria, Palestine, the Libyans, and the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary at Abydos. Like his father, he favored the delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (now Qantir). One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded him and reigned for nearly 67 years. He was responsible for much construction at Luxor and Karnak, and he built the Ramesseum (his funerary temple at Thebes), the rock-cut temples at Abu Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and Memphis. After campaigns against the Hittites, Ramses made a treaty with them and married a Hittite princess. His son Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC, defeated the Sea Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the Middle East in the 13th century BC, and records tell of his desolating Israel. Later rulers had to contend with constant uprisings by subject peoples of the empire.
The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III, had his military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary complex at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death the New Kingdom declined, chiefly because of the rising power of the priesthood of Amon and the army. One high priest and military commander even had himself depicted in royal regalia.
Third Intermediate Period
The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the north, vied with a line of high priests, to whom they appear to be related, from Thebes, in the south. The rulers of the 21st Dynasty may have been partially Libyan in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty began with Libyan chieftains as kings. As the Libyans' rule deteriorated, several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact the next two dynasties, the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous with part of the 22nd Dynasty, just as the 25th (Kushite) Dynasty effectively controlled much of Egypt during the latter years of the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.
Late Period
The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The Cushites ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by the Assyrians in 671 BC. Native rule was reestablished early in the 26th Dynasty by Psamtik I. A resurgence of cultural achievement, reminiscent of earlier epochs, reached its height in the 26th Dynasty. When the last Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II in 525 BC, the country entered a period of Persian domination under the 27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under the 28th and 29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last one of native rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not listed in Manetho's chronology, represented the second Persian domination.
The Hellenistic and Roman Periods
The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the Great in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander appointed Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt, and his Macedonian general, known later as Ptolemy I, to govern the country. Although two Egyptian governors were named as well, power was clearly in the hands of Ptolemy, who in a few years took absolute control of the country.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty
Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of Alexander's empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied much of Ptolemy's time, but in 305 BC he assumed the royal title and founded the dynasty that bears his name (see Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great powers of the Hellenistic world, and at various times it extended its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands.
Partly because native Egyptian rulers had a reduced role in affairs of state during the Ptolemaic regime, they periodically demonstrated their dissatisfaction by open revolts, all of which were, however, quickly suppressed. In the reign of Ptolemy VI, Egypt became a protectorate under Antiochus IV of Syria, who successfully invaded the country in 169 BC. The Romans, however, forced Antiochus to give up the country, which was then divided between Ptolemy VI and his younger brother, Ptolemy VIII; the latter took full control upon the death of his brother in 145 BC.
The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth and status of Egypt while continually losing territory to the Romans. Cleopatra VII was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic line. In an attempt to maintain Egyptian power she aligned herself with Julius Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, but these moves only postponed the end. After her forces were defeated by Roman legions under Octavian (later Emperor Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.
Roman and Byzantine Rule
For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans controlled Egypt (except for a short time in the 3rd century AD, when it came under the power of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra). They treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and profit and were dependent on its supply of grain to feed their multitudes. Roman Egypt was governed by a prefect, whose duties as commander of the army and official judge were similar to those of the pharaohs of the past. The office, therefore, was one with which the native population was familiar. Because of the immense power of the prefects, however, their functions were eventually divided under Emperor Justinian, who in the 6th century AD put the army under a separate commander, directly responsible to him.
Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its southern boundary at Aswan was only rarely attacked by the Ethiopians. Egypt's population had become Hellenized under the Ptolemies, and it included large minorities of Greeks and Jews, as well as other peoples from Asia Minor. The mixture of the cultures did not lead to a homogeneous society, and civil strife was frequent. In 212, however, Emperor Caracalla granted the entire population citizenship in the Roman Empire.
Alexandria, the port city on the Mediterranean founded by Alexander the Great, remained the capital as it had been under the Ptolemies. One of the great metropolises of the Roman Empire, it was the center of a thriving commerce between India and Arabia and the Mediterranean countries. It was the home of the great Alexandrian library and museum and had a population of some 300,000 (excluding slaves).
Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not only because of its annual harvest of grain but also for its glass, metal, and other manufactured products. In addition, the trade brought in spices, perfumes, precious stones, and rare metals from the Red Sea ports. Once part of the empire, Egypt was subject to a variety of taxes as well.
In order to control the people and placate the powerful priesthood, the Roman emperors protected the ancient religion, completed or embellished temples begun under the Ptolemies, and had their own names inscribed on them as pharaohs; the cartouches of several can be found at Isna, Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae. The Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis spread throughout the ancient world. Egypt was also an important center of early Christendom and the first one of Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or Monophysite church separated from mainstream Christianity in the 5th century.
During the 7th century the power of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire was challenged by the Sassanids of Persia, who invaded Egypt in 616. They were expelled again in 628, but soon after, in 642, the country fell to the Arabs, who brought with them a new religion, Islam, and began a new chapter of Egyptian history.
Egypt Under the the Byzantinans:
Alienated by the religious intolerance and heavy taxation of the Byzantine government, the Coptic Egyptians offered little resistance to their Arab conquerors. A treaty was subsequently signed, by which the Egyptians agreed to pay a poll tax (jizyah) in return for an Arab promise to respect the religious practices, lives, and property of the Copts. Besides the poll tax, the male population, estimated at between 6 and 8 million, paid the kharaj, a tax levied on agricultural land.
Local Government
No changes in the administration were made by the Arabs, who adopted the Byzantine decentralized system of provincial governors reporting to a chief governor, resident in the capital, Alexandria. They did, however, later move the capital to a new, more central location, called Al Fustat (“the tent”), a few miles south of present-day Cairo.
For the next two centuries Egypt was ruled by governors appointed by the caliph, the leader of the Muslim community. In this system, mild and generous rule alternated with severity and religious oppression, depending on the character of the governor appointed, his relationship with the population, and his financial needs. Immigration of Arab tribes and the replacement of the Coptic language by Arabic in all public documents began a slow process of Arabization that was eventually to turn Coptic-speaking Christian Egypt into a largely Muslim and wholly Arabic-speaking country. Coptic became a liturgical language.
Internal Strife
Under the Abbasid caliphs (750-868), governors were appointed for brief periods, and Egypt was plagued by a series of insurrections arising from conflicts between the different sects of Muslims who had settled there: the Sunni, or orthodox majority, and the minority Shia sect. On several occasions the Copts also rose to protest excessive taxation. Such uprisings were met with repression and persecution by the government. Internal conditions became so bad in the late 8th century that a group of new immigrants from Andalusia allied themselves with an Arab tribe and seized Alexandria, holding it until an army arrived from Baghdad and exiled them to Crete. Insurrections continued to break out among the Arabs, who even defeated a governor and burned his baggage. Rebellions by the Copts continued until Caliph Abdullah al-Mamun led a Turkish army to put down the revolts in 832. This was a period of ruthless and unscrupulous governors, who abused the population and extorted money from them. The only bulwark against such oppression lay in the chief qadi, the country's leading Muslim magistrate, who maintained the sacred law—the Sharia—in the face of abuse of power, and helped ease the rapacity of the governors.
Despite a predominantly rural population, commercial centers flourished, and Al Fustat grew to become a trading metropolis.From 856 onward Egypt was given as an iqta, a form of fief, to the Turkish military oligarchy that dominated the caliphate in Baghdad. In 868 Ahmad ibn Tulun, a 33-year-old Turk, was sent to the country as governor. A man of ability and education, Tulun ruled wisely and well, but he also turned Egypt into an autonomous province, linked with the Abbasids only by the yearly payment of a small tribute. Tulun built a new city, Al Qita‘ì (“the Wards”), north of Al Fustat. Under his benevolent rule Egypt prospered and expanded to annex Syria. Tulun's dynasty (the Tulunids) ruled for 37 years over an empire that included Egypt, Palestine, and Syria.
The Fatimid
After the last rule by the Tulunids, the country fell into a state of anarchy. Its weak and defenseless condition made it an easy prey for the Fatimids, a Shiite dynasty that in 909, rejecting the authority of the Abbasids, had proclaimed their own caliphate in Tunisia and by the mid-10th century controlled most of North Africa. In 969 they invaded and conquered Egypt and subsequently founded a new city, Cairo, north of Al Fustat, making it their capital. See Caliphate.
Al Fustat, however, remained the commercial hub of the country under the Fatimids. It was an impressive, multistoried urban center with an excellent underground sewage system. An Iranian traveler, Nasir-i-Khosrau, who visited Egypt in 1046, marveled at the rich markets and the security of the land. Egypt was then enjoying a period of tranquillity and prosperity.
The Fatimids, although Shiites in their beliefs, for the most part coexisted peacefully with the predominantly Sunni population. They founded the oldest university in the world, Al Azhar, and Cairo became a great intellectual center.
The Ayyubids:
Tranquillity disappeared with later Fatimid rulers, who could not control their unruly regiments of Berber and Sudanese soldiers. A low Nile caused serious famine in 1065. New danger appeared with the First Crusade from western Europe, which established Christian control over Syria and Palestine in the late 1090s. The Fatimid caliphs, by now pawns in the hands of their generals, appealed to Nur ad-Din of Halab (Aleppo), and he sent an army to help them against the Crusaders in 1168. Saladin, one of Nur ad-Din's generals, was installed as vizier. In 1171 he abolished the Fatimid caliphate, founding the Ayyubid dynasty and restoring Sunni rule to Egypt. Saladin reconquered most of Syria and Palestine from the Crusaders and became the most powerful Middle Eastern ruler of this time. His nephew, Sultan al-Kamil, who reigned 1218-1238, successfully defended Egypt against a Christian attack in 1218-1221, but after his death Ayyubid power declined. The Ninth Crusade, led by Louis IX of France, was repelled in 1249, with the aid of the Mamelukes, slave troops in Ayyubid service. The following year the Mamelukes overthrew the Ayyubids and established their own ruling house.
The Mamelukes
The first Mameluke dynasty, the Bahri, held power as sultans of Egypt until 1382. Hereditary succession was frequently disregarded and the throne usurped by the more powerful emirs (military commanders). Many among them were remarkable rulers, such as Baybars I, who halted the Mongol advance into Syria and Egypt in 1260. Two other Mongol invasions were repelled by the Mamelukes, who also expelled the Crusaders from the region and captured ‘Akko, their last stronghold in Palestine, in 1291. In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the Mameluke realm extended north to the borders of Asia Minor.
The age of the Mamelukes was one of extraordinary brilliance in the arts. It was also an age of commercial expansion; Egypt's spice traders, the Karimi, were merchant princes who vied with the emirs in patronizing the arts.
After the death of the last great Bahri sultan, al-Nasir, in 1341, Egypt lapsed into decline. His descendants were mere figureheads who allowed real power to remain in the hands of the emirs. In 1348 the plague known as the Black Death swept over the land, radically reducing the population.
The second dynasty of Mameluke sultans, the Burjis, was of Circassian origin and ruled from 1382 to 1517. Most of the Burji rulers exercised little real authority; their dynasty was marked by continual power struggles among the Mameluke elite. In the midst of rebellion and civil strife, the Mamelukes continued to hold Egypt and Syria by virtue of their ability to repel invasions. By the early 16th century, however, they were threatened by the growing power of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1517 the Ottoman Sultan Selim I invaded Egypt and ruled it.
The Ottoman
Although the real hold of the Ottoman Turks over Egypt was to last only until the 17th century, the country remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire until 1915. Rather than exterminate the Mamelukes, the Ottomans used them in their administration. They established a governor and settled six ocaks (regiments) in Egypt as a garrison. In time the roman ocaks intermarried with the native people, playing an important role in the country's economic and political life. Rural areas were treated as crown lands, parceled into plots called iqta, the produce of which went to the Ottoman elite.
The Mameluke come back:
As time went on, an inflationary trend that historians have noted in 16th-century Europe had repercussions in Egypt as well. Rising prices led to rivalry among the ocaks over the country's wealth. This weakened their control, and the Mamelukes stepped into the breach. By the mid-17th century the Mameluke emirs, or beys, had established their supremacy. Land taxes were farmed out among them, and the urban guilds, which were closely allied with the roman ocaks, were heavily taxed as a means of diminishing Ottoman influence and of increasing revenue. The Ottomans acquiesced in the system so long as the tribute was regularly paid.
The period from the 16th to the mid-18th century was an age of commercial prosperity when Egypt, at the crossroads of several commercial routes, was the center of a flourishing intermediary trade in coffee, textiles, and spices.
The Ottoman governor quickly became a puppet, first in the hands of the regiments, which held the military power, and then in the hands of the Mamelukes, who came to control the ocaks. The leading Mameluke bey, called the Shaikh al-Balad (“chief of the city”), thus became recognized as the real ruler of the land. The beys imposed higher taxes to finance their military expeditions in Syria and Arabia. Although defeated in Syria by the Ottomans, who once more sought to reinforce their authority, the Mamelukes dominated Egypt until 1798. The last 30 years of the 18th century were marked by plagues and famine that reduced the population to a bare 4 million.
The Time of Muhammad Ali:
The French occupation of Egypt in 1798, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, was a brief interlude, for the French never acquired full dominion or control. The grain-producing regions of Upper Egypt remained in Mameluke hands. Napoleon's invasion was too short-lived to have any lasting impact, but it marked the beginning of a renewed European interest in Egypt. In 1801 an Anglo-Ottoman force expelled the French. For the next few years, struggles between Mamelukes and Ottomans for mastery ruined the country until Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman general of Albanian origin, seized power with the cooperation of the local population. In 1805 the Ottoman sultan declared him the governor of Egypt.
Muhammad Ali, a man of genius, slowly and methodically destroyed or bought off all his opponents until he became the only source of power in the country. To gain control of all the trade routes into Egypt, he embarked on wars of expansion. He first conquered Al Hijaz (the Hejaz, now in Saudi Arabia) in 1819 and Sudan from 1820 to 1822; by 1824 he was ready to help the Ottoman sultan put down an insurrection in Greece. The European powers, however, intervened to halt Egyptian advances in Greece, and Muhammad Ali was forced to withdraw his army.
At home, Muhammad Ali encouraged the production of cotton to supply the textile mills of Europe, and he used the profits to finance industrial projects. He established a monopoly over all commodities and imposed trade barriers to nurture industry. He sent Egyptians abroad for technical education and hired experts from Europe to train his army and build his manufacturing industries (which, however, were never as successful as he hoped they would be).
In 1831 Muhammad Ali invaded Syria, thereby coming into conflict with his Turkish overlord. The Egyptians defeated the Ottoman armies, and by 1833 they were threatening the Turkish capital, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). Once again, Russia, Britain, and France intervened, this time to protect the sultan. Muhammad Ali's forces withdrew, but he was left in control of Syria and Crete.
Egyptian expansion and control over trade routes conflicted with Britain's growing interest in the Middle East as a market for its burgeoning industrial production. The threat to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire also disturbed Britain and roused fears of Russian encroachment in the Mediterranean. For these reasons the British opposed Egypt, and when Muhammad Ali again rebelled against the sultan in 1839, they stepped in for the third time to make him back down. He was offered hereditary possession of Egypt, but had to give up his other conquests and remain an Ottoman vassal.
Bankruptcy and Foreign influence
After the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, Egypt came increasingly under European influence. His son, Said Pasha, made some attempt to modernize the government, but left a huge debt when he died. His successor, Ismail , increased the national debt by borrowing lavishly from European bankers to develop the country and pay for the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869. These spendthrift rulers drove the country into bankruptcy and ultimately into the control of their British and French creditors. In 1876 an Anglo-French commission took charge of Egypt's finances, and in 1879 the sultan deposed Ismail in favor of his son Tawfik Pasha. Army officers, disgusted by the government's weakness, then led a rebellion to end foreign control. Tawfik appealed to the British for help, and they occupied Egypt in 1882.
Egypt Under the British:
British interest in Egypt stemmed from the Suez Canal as the short route to India. Promises to evacuate the country once order had been restored were broken, and the British army remained in occupation until 1954. Although Tawfik remained on the throne as a figurehead prince, the British consul general was the real ruler of the country. The first and most important consul general was Sir Evelyn Baring (known after 1892 as Lord Cromer).
A nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kamil, a European-educated lawyer, was backed by Tawfik's successor, Abbas II, during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Kamil agitated for self-government and an end to the British occupation but was ignored by British authorities.In this period Egyptian agriculture was so completely dominated by cotton grown to feed the textile mills of Lancashire, England, that grain had to be imported to feed the rural population. Irrigation projects were carried out to increase the arable land, and in due course the entire debt to Britain was paid.British promises to evacuate diminished as Egypt and the Suez Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy. The illegal occupation was, in fact, internationally sanctioned in 1904, when France recognized British rights in Egypt in return for British acknowledgment of French rights in Morocco.
Protectorate Declared:
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought nationalist activities in Egypt to an end. When Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany, Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed Abbas II in favor of his uncle, Hussein Kamil, who was given the title of sultan. Legal ties between Egypt and Turkey were finally severed, and Britain promised Egypt some changes in government once the war was over.
The war years resulted in great hardship for Egyptian peasants, the fellahin, who were conscripted to dig ditches and whose livestock was confiscated by the army. Inflation was rampant. These factors were responsible for increasing resentment against the British and set the stage for the violent upheaval that was to come after World War I ended in 1918.
llied promises that former Ottoman territories would be allowed self-determination raised hopes in Egypt of independence once the war was over. A new nationalist movement, the Wafd (“delegation”), was formed in 1918 to plan for the country's future. Hopes were dashed when Britain refused to consider Egyptian needs, and Saad Zaghlul, the leader of the Wafd, was exiled. The country erupted in violent revolt, and Britain was forced to reconsider its decision. Zaghlul was released, but his efforts to get a hearing at the Paris Peace Conference were thwarted by the British. Violence continued until 1922, when Britain unilaterally declared Egypt an independent monarchy under Hussein's successor, who became king as Fuad I. The British, however, reserved the right to intervene in Egyptian affairs if their interests were threatened, thereby robbing Egypt of any real independence and allowing British control to continue unabated.
The new constitution of 1924 set up a bicameral legislature but, under pressure from the British and Fuad, gave the latter the right to nominate the premier and to suspend Parliament. The result was a tripartite struggle for mastery over Egypt involving the king, the British ambassador, and the Wafd, which was the only grass-roots party. One government after another fell after trying unsuccessfully to extract concessions from the British. In 1936, under pressures caused by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, an Anglo-Egyptian treaty was finally signed, but it continued the physical occupation of Egypt by the British army and the involvement of the British army in internal affairs.
The Coup of 1952
World War II (1939-1945) suspended further political bargaining. The war years brought inflation, interparty strife, and disillusion with the Wafd. Fundamentalist religious organizations, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, and Communist groups developed.In 1948 Egypt and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. Blaming the government for its loss, the army turned against King Faruk, Fuad's son, who showed no aptitude for government and a blatant disregard for public well-being and morality. In 1952 a group of army officers carried out a successful coup d'etat that ousted the king and in 1953 declared Egypt a republic.
Egypt as a republic :
The first president of the republic, General Muhammad Naguib, was a figurehead. The real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser of the Revolutionary Command Council, the officers who had plotted the revolution. In April 1954 Nasser became prime minister. In November of that year, Naguib was removed from power, and Nasser assumed complete executive authority. In July 1956 Nasser was officially elected president.
At first Nasser followed a pro-Western policy and successfully negotiated the evacuation of British forces from Egypt in 1954. Soon he turned to a policy of neutrality and solidarity with other African and Asian nations and became an advocate of Arab unity.
The Suez Crisis
In efforts to acquire armaments, which the Western world would not supply to Egypt, Nasser turned to the Eastern bloc. In retaliation, the World Bank turned down Egypt's request for a loan to finance the Aswan High Dam project. Nasser therefore nationalized the Suez Canal and sought to use its revenues to finance the dam. Angered by that move, Britain and France, the main stockholders in the canal, joined with Israel in attacking Egypt in 1956. Pressure from the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) forced the three countries to evacuate Egyptian territory, and United Nations (UN) forces were placed as a buffer between Egypt and Israel.
Pursuing his dream of Arab unity, Nasser in 1958 effected a union between Egypt and Syria under the name of the United Arab Republic. Although it lasted only three years before the Syrians rebelled and reaffirmed their independence, Egypt retained the official name of the republic for many years afterward.
Arab Socialism
Within Egypt the Nasser regime suppressed political opposition and established a one-party system as a means of reforming political life. A series of decrees limited land ownership and undermined the authority of the landowning elite. In 1961 foreign capital invested in Egypt was nationalized, as were public utilities and local industries, all of which became part of the public sector. This new order, which Nasser called Arab Socialism, aimed at greater social equality and economic growth. In 1962 a national charter was drawn up, and the official National Union Party was renamed the Arab Socialist Union. Women, who had been emancipated earlier, were elected to the union, as were workers. The first woman cabinet minister was appointed.
Wars of the 1960s
In 1962 Egypt became embroiled in a civil war in Yemen, backing a republican movement against monarchist forces. This venture cost lives and money and left the country weakened. In 1967 Nasser, continuing the Arab struggle against Israel, closed the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping and requested that the UN forces be withdrawn from the border. The Israelis, believing that Nasser was preparing for war, struck first, attacking and destroying Egyptian airfields and positions in the Sinai. Israeli forces advanced until they reached the right bank of the Suez Canal. This Six-Day War left Israel in possession of the whole Sinai Peninsula. The UN Security Council called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories. Israel Did decline and continued to occupy the Sinai. When negotiations seemed to be leading nowhere, Nasser turned to the USSR, which rearmed Egypt in return for a naval base.Nasser died suddenly in 1970. Problems of succession to the post of president were settled when Vice President Anwar El-Sadat, a long-time colleague of Nasser, was chosen to succeed him.
The Sadat Regime
Sadat was elected by opposing political factions as a compromise candidate, on the assumption that he could be manipulated. The new president, however, outwitted his would-be puppeteers and, with the support of the army, put them under arrest. He freed political prisoners who had been incarcerated by Nasser for opposing his policies, and called for a regime of economic and political liberalization, especially for the press, which Nasser had strictly controlled.
The 6th of october war :
clashes between Egypt and Israel had continued after 1969, and this “war of attrition” had resulted in high Egyptian casualties and burdensome military expenditures. Sadat tried to find a way out of that impress negotiation. successfully he secretly planned a for a war to free the occupied sinai from Israel. He first repaired his fences with the Arab states, especially Saudi Arabia, which financed arms purchases from the Soviet Union. Then, on October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur and during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan(10th of Ramadan), Egypt launched an air and artillery counterattack across the Suez Canal. Within hours, thousands of Egyptian soldiers had successfully crossed into the Sinai. Protected by a missile umbrella that destroyed Israeli aircrafts, they overran and captured the string of Israeli fortifications known as the Bar-Lev line. Israel was caught unprepared. It was a total victory . By the middle of the month, however, with immidate aid from the united states ,it had regained the initiative and was able to encircle Egyptian units on the outskirts of Suez. The United Nations then imposed a cease-fire, and an armistice line patrolled by UN forces was eventually established between the Egyptian and the Israeli armies.
peace treaty with Isreal
After the war Sadat was ready for negotiations. In 1974 and 1975 Egypt and Israel concluded agreements—again mediated by Kissinger—providing disengagement on the Sinai front. In June 1975 Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, permitting passage to ships carrying Israeli cargoes. Israel withdrew beyond the strategic passes and from some of the oil fields in the Sinai.Meanwhile, Egypt's economic position was growing rapidly worse; by early 1976 the country's debt to the USSR was estimated at $4 billion. The following year, surprising all, Sadat asked the Soviet military advisers to leave the country and threw his lot in with the United States, declaring it held the key to peace in the Middle East. Even more surprising, on November 19, 1977, Sadat flew to Israel and addressed the Knesset (parliament) . The historic journey was followed by further negotiations under U.S. auspices. At a tripartite conference with U.S. president Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland, in September 1978, Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin agreed on a framework for an Israeli-Egyptian settlement. A peace treaty between the two nations, based on the Camp David accords, was signed in Washington, D.C., on March 26, 1979.
Sadat regime :
The rest of the Arab world denounced Egypt for making a separate peace with Israel, and some of the more “hard-line” Arab leaders branded Sadat a traitor to the Arab cause. The Sinai was gradually restored to Egypt, but later Egyptian-Israeli talks on a settlement of the Palestinian issue made little progress. Egypt was expelled from the Arab League in 1979 because of the peace treaty, and the league's headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis, Tunisia. In 1989 Egypt was readmitted to the league; the headquarters were moved back to Cairo the following year.By 1981 Sadat was meeting increasing opposition within Egypt itself, especially from Muslim fundamentalists, who opposed any accommodation with Israel. Sadat responded with a crackdown, arresting and jailing hundreds of his opponents, and placing restrictions on the press. In such an atmosphere he was assassinated by religious fanatics within his own army on October 6, 1981, during a military parade commemorating the Yom Kippur War.Sadat was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak. While adhering to the Camp David accords, Mubarak sought political liberalization within Egypt as well as improved relations with other Arab states. Israel completed its withdrawal from the Sinai on April 25, 1982. president Mubarak applied and embraced democracy and still doing his best to enhance the life of the Egyptians.